Muwashshah

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Muwashshah ( Arabic موشح, DMG muwaššah  , "belt-poetry '' [ mu'waʃːaħ ] listen ? / i ) is an Arabic-Andalusian stanza poem form of a fixed design, which differs structurally, metrically and linguistically from its oriental models Qasīda and Ghazel . The oriental poem forms known up to then, Qasīda and Ghazel, are non-strophic, only know the monoreim, i.e. continuous end rhymes, and are written in classical Arabic. In contrast, a muwashshaha usually has five (to seven) stanzas, which are connected to one another by a continuous sweeping rhyme - belt-like. Audio file / audio sample

Muwashschah poetry was invented in medieval Islamic al-Ándalus in the 10th century on the soil of today's Spain as a song of praise or love. According to tradition, the inventor of the Muwaschschah genus is considered to be the legendary Arab-Andalusian poet Muqaddam ibn Muʿafa, el ciego de Cabra (the blind man from Cabra), who lived not far from Córdoba around 920 AD .

A very special characteristic of the Muwaschschah is the code switching , the sudden change from one language ( bilingualism ) or language level to another. This code-switching, this mixture of languages, takes place in the closing verses of the last stanza, which are called the chardscha . While the other verses of a Muwashshaha are written in classical Arabic (or in Hebrew), the final verses, the Chardscha, are written in Arabic-Andalusian colloquial language (vulgar Arabic) or even written in a foreign language: bilingual Muwashschahas . Thus one discovered Romance chardjas , closing verses that contain isolated or several old Spanish, Mozarabic words and hybrid Romance-Arabic compounds . This mixed language is reminiscent of Macaronic poetry and is roughly comparable to today's Denglish .

These early Romanesque Ḫarǧas , like the rest of the poem text, are written in Arabic script. Such an alienating spelling is called aljamiado .

Sephardic Jews living in al-Ándalus also produced important Muwaschschah poets, so that Muwaschschah manuscripts have come down to us in two different Semitic alphabets: in Hebrew and in Arabic consonant writing .

The traditional corpus of Muwashschah poetry

The text corpus of Arabic Muwashschah poetry comprises around 600 poems, of which only around 8% contain so-called Romanesque Ḫarǧas . The most important manuscripts are the ʿUddat al-jalīs (Colin manuscript) and the manuscripts of Jayš al-tawšīh. Important Arab Muwaššaḥ poets are z. B. Yūsuf ibn Hārūn ar-Ramādī, 'Alī ibn' Arabī (Abū Bakr), Ibn Baqī and Muqaddam Ibn Muʿafa.

But it was not only Arab poets who created Muwashshah poetry in al-Ándalus, in medieval Moorish Spain. The Sephardic Jews living there also produced important Muwashschah poets, such as B. Yehuda ha-Levi . They wrote poetry in the Hebrew language, with their Ḫar imas in the context of code switching (language mixture) also being in Arabic-Andalusian colloquial language or even peppered with some old Spanish segments. The entire text of the poem is written in Hebrew consonant script. In the tradition of the Muwashshah manuscripts, one differentiates between an Arabic series and a Hebrew series . The earliest of the approximately 70 Romanesque Ḫarǧas that have been deciphered to date (dated to before 1042) comes from the Hebrew Muwashschah series. Some of the Muwashschahas, which have come down to us in both an Arabic and a Hebrew version, are valuable material for comparison. The medieval manuscripts were taken with them by the Muslims and Sephardic Jews when they were expelled from Spain to the Orient. There they have been copied several times, by scribes to whom both the Arabic-Andalusian dialect and the Romance dialect of al-Ándalus were foreign to unknown. Often these manuscripts were only rediscovered by chance. Many of the Muwashshah manuscripts have not yet been fully published or deciphered. Some treasures are still waiting to be discovered.

Subject, form and language of the Muwashschah poetry

Part of the Muwaschschah lyric is panegyric : praise of the ruler, another part anacreontic : (homo) erotic love poetry. Muwashschah poetry is characterized by a romantic turn to the beauty of Hispania's nature . You can find flower poems (nawriyyāt), spring poems (rabīʿiyyāt), garden poems (rawḍiyyāt) and wine poems (khamriyyāt), i.e. the praise of an alcoholic drink that Muslims are actually forbidden to enjoy :

“When the Ephebe serves the wine or beautiful singers sweeten the feast, the connection to the erotic poem, the ghost of classical Arabic literature is established [...] Pleasurable and art-loving friends meet in a garden separated from the outside world to celebrate life and love with circling cups. "

- Georg Bossong : The miracle of al-Andalus. The most beautiful poems from Moorish Spain

According to Theodor Frings , Arabic is said to be موشح, DMG muwaššaḥ from Arabic ويشاح, DMG wišaḥ  'double belt for women' and could be translated as “the double belted or the double beaded belt”, because:

“This crossing of the rhymes of bb cc dd ee etc. with a is reminiscent of the regularly arranged and crossing rows of pearls and jewels of the women's belt, a double belt. One could translate 'double belted'. "

- Theodor Frings : Old Spanish girl songs from the spring minnesang

The majority of the Muwaššaḥas consists of five five-line stanzas (Arabic stanza = dawr ) with the rhyme scheme[(aa) bbbaa cccaa dddaa eeeaa fffAA]. The optional introductory verses ( prelude ) (aa) are called maṭla . The first (three) lines of a stanza - with monoreim - are called bayt (or agṣān). The final verses of the stanzas, the refrain , form the qufl (or simṭ). If there is a prelude (maṭla) at the beginning of a muvashshaha, i.e. if it starts with a one or two-line qufl , it is called tāmm (complete). If, on the other hand , a muwashshaha begins directly with a bayt without an introduction , one speaks of an aqraʿ (bald).

A special importance is the closing verses, the qufl (SIMT) the last stanza of a Muwaschschaha to which Ḫarǧa , in Spanish, called jarcha ':

“The Ḫarǧa is the highlight of the Muwaššaḥ, its salt, its sugar, its musk, its ambergris; it is the exit and it must be particularly praiseworthy, it is the end, no, rather the introduction, although it is at the end; when I say: the introduction, it means that the poet's mind must be directed towards everything else; he who wants to write a muwaššaḥ must first prepare it before he is bound by meter or rhyme, in a moment when he is free and unbound, happy and carefree. He has found the reason, he has the tail and sits his head on it. "

- Martin Hartmann : The Arabic verse poem, I. Das Muwaššaḥ

The medieval Egyptian poet and literary theorist Ibn Sanā 'al-Mulk (1155–1211) wrote a poetics of Muwashschah in the foreword to his anthology Dar al-ṭirāz . In it he mentions, among other things, that the Ḫarǧa can also be written in non-Arabic, in a nichtamī (foreign language): This phenomenon is called code switching :

“Sometimes the Ḫarǧa is written in foreign language words; But it is then a condition that the words in the foreign language sound really wild and confused and gibberish . "

- Martin Hartmann : The Arabic verse poem, I. Das Muwaššaḥ

In the Ḫarǧa, the poet himself no longer speaks, but these closing verses are often put into the mouths of girls in love. Often it is an imitation (muʿāraḍa) of the verses of other poets or a quotation from a popular song, often introduced (tamhīd) in the preceding Bayt by an explicit inquit formula :

“Most often we put the Ḫarǧa in the mouths of boys and women; then a verbum dicendi verb of saying must be found in the bayt that precedes the Sagar desa [...] Some cannot finish the Ḫarǧa and then take someone else's help. "

- Martin Hartmann : The Arabic verse poem, I. Das Muwaššaḥ

The Muwashschah poetry differs from the classical Oriental Qasīda not only in the presence of stanzas, its girdled rhyme scheme and code switching, but also in the meter used in it:

“While qasida poetry uses a strict canon of exactly 16 quantifying meters, there are about ten times the number of different meters in stanza poetry by al-Andalus. The classical canon has been broken up […] Within a stanza, different meters can also be mixed, longer verses can be combined with shorter verses, which is unthinkable in quasida poetry. To this day, scholars argue about whether the stanza poetry of al-Andalus is based on a different principle than the qasida poetry; whether it is no longer the quantity that structures the verse, but rather the accent. "

- Georg Bossong : The miracle of al-Andalus. The most beautiful poems from Moorish Spain

Adaptation of the Arabic Muwashshaha N ° XIV

The Spanish Arabist Emilio García Gómez has completely transliterated 43 Arabic muwashshahas, which contain closing verses with old Spanish vocabulary, from the Arabic into the Latin alphabet and - compared to the transliteration in a linear manner - transcribed verse by verse into modern Spanish so faithfully that the formal rhyme scheme and the rhythm the Arabic original can be modeled. The final verses, the old Spanish Ḫarǧas (AA), are initially consonantically transliterated and next - untranslated - according to Emilio García Gómez's interpretation, vocalized in such a way that the old Spanish words he suspected become visible. The author then gives a translation of the early Romanesque iertenarǧas reconstructed in this way into today's Spanish in the footnotes of the book.

The text example is a five-stanza love poem from the 11th century (moaxaja N ° XIV, poem N ° 190 from the manuscript 'Uddat al-jālis).

The verses are reproduced in long verses in the following - true to the original Arabic text; the division into half-verses is made clear by a dash (-).

The poem N ° XIV shows the typical rhyme scheme as tāmm[aa bbbaa cccaa ddda eeeaa fffAA] (AA = the Ḫarǧa)

The Arabic incipit of the poem reads in transliteration: Aflāku 'l-ǧuyūbi

Prelude (maṭla)
1 Lunas nuevas salen - entre cielos de seda: (a)
2 guían a los hombres - aun cuando eje no tengan (a)
First verse
3 Sólo con los rubios - se deleitan mis ojos: (b) lines 3–6: bayt of the first stanza
4 ramos son de plata - que echan hojas de oro. (B)
5 ¡Si besar pudiera - de esas perlas el chorro! (B)
6 ¿Y por qué mi amigo - a besarme se niega (a) Lines 6–8: qufl of the first stanza
7 si es su boca dulce - y la sed me atormenta? (a)
Second stanza
8 Es, entre jazmines - su carillo amapola. (C) Lines 9-11: bayt of the second stanza
9 Rayas de jaloque - y de algalia la adornan (c)
10 Si también añado - cornalina, no importa (c)
11 No obra bien si espanta - su galán la gacela, (a) lines 12-13: qufl of the second stanza
12 cuando de censores - las hablillas acepta. (a)
Third verse
13 ¿Con mi amigo Áhmad - hay, decid, quien compita? (D) Lines 13–15 bayt of the third stanza
14 Único en belleza - de gacela es cual cría. (D)
15 Hiere su mirada - todo aquel a quien mira. (D)
16 ¡Cuántos corazones - bien traspasa con flechas (a) Lines 16–17 qufl of the third stanza
17 que empeñacha su ojo - con pestañas espesas? (a)
Fourth verse
18 Mientras del amigo - yo Finderábame al lado (e) Lines 18–21 bayt of the fourth stanza
19 y le ponderaba - mi dolencia y maltrato, (e)
20 ya que él es el médico - que pudiera curarlos, (e)
21 vió al espía que, sin - que nos diéramos cuenta, (a) lines 21–22 qufl of the fourth stanza
22 vínose a nostros - y le entró la vergüenza. (a)
Fifth verse
23 Cuánta hermosa moza - que de amor desatina, (f) lines 23-25 ​​bayt of the last stanza, 'tamhīd' = the introduction of the Ḫarǧa
24 ve sus labios rojos - que besar bien querría, (f)
25 y su lindo cuello - ya su madre los pinta: (f)

The following lines 26 and 27 give the last qufl , the Ḫarǧa , in the transliteration by Emilio García Gómez:

26 ¡Mammà 'ay ḥabībe - š l-ǧumm'lh šaqrlh, (A) lines 26–27: qufl of the last stanza: the Ḫarǧa
27 lql 'lb - bk'lh ḥamrlh (A)

Three-step decipherment of mixed-language chardjas

The two long verses of the above Chardscha N ° XIV show in the original manuscript - in Arabic characters - enigmatic clusters of consonants from which no meaningful Arabic words can be read at first.

Line 26 Arabic مم أي حبيب - شلجمله شقرله
Line 27 in Arabic القل الب - ابكله حمرله

The attempt to decipher such cryptic Ḫarǧas takes place in three steps: 1) transliteration, 2) meaningful reconstruction through vocalization (transcription) and 3) translation (interpretation) into living languages.

In the first step, the Arabist Alan Jones explains in his critical edition of the Romance Ḫarǧas which characters he is able to recognize in the original manuscript after emendations and conjectures . First, he spells out every single Arabic character he recognizes and then transliterates the consonant sequences (words) into the Latin alphabet:

Line 26 Arabic مم أي حبيب - شلجمله شقرله
Half verse 1 in Arabic مم أي حبيب spelled: mīm, mīm - new word - alif, yā, - break - ḥa, bā, yā, bā
Transliteration: mm ay ḥbyb
Half verse 2 Arabic شلجمله شقرله spelled: shīn, lām, dschīm, mīm, lām, hā - new word - shīn, qāf, rā, lām, hā
Transliteration: šljmlh šqrlh
Line 27 in Arabic القل الب - ابكله حمرله
Half verse 3 Arabic القل الب spelled: alif, lām, qāf, lām - new word - alif, lām, bā
Transliteration: alql alb
Half verse 4 Arabic ابكله حمرله spelled: alif, bā, kāf, lām, hā - new word - ḥā, mīm, rā, lām, hā
Transliteration: abklh ḥmrlh

After a meticulous palaeographic analysis of the original Arabic manuscript, Alan Jones concurs with his colleague Emilio García Gómez's opinion that this Ḫarǧa N ° XIV is a mixed-language Arabic-Romance Aljamiado text , i.e. a Romance Ḫarǧa .

The second step, meaningful vocalization (transcription), reveals the mixed-language text made up of nine words; a so-called Romanesque or Mozarabic Ḫarǧa is reconstructed:

Half verse 1 in Arabic مم أي حبيب- mm ay ḥbyb - mamma, ay ḥabibi
Half verse 2 Arabic شلجمله شقرله- šljmlh šqrlh - šul-jumallah šaqrella
Half verse 3 Arabic القل الب- alql alb - al-quwallu albu
Half verse 4 Arabic ابكله حمرله- abklh - ḥmrlh: la-bekallah ḥamrallah

Of the nine words transcribed (vocalized) in this way, three are purely Romance , two are Arabic, two Arabic-Romance compounds and two words are of onomatopoeic origin ("ay" and "mamma"):

Half verse 1: ay, mamma (onomatopic vocabulary); ḥabibi (pure Arabic) lover
Half verse 2: šul-jumallah (purely Arabic) strand of hair; šaqrella = (Arabic-Romance mixed word from Arabic šaqra) blond (+ Romance diminutive –ella) blond (chen)
Half verse 3: quwallu = (Romanesque cuello) neck; albu (Romansh albo) = white
Half verse 4: bekallah (Romansh bocca) mouth (+ Romansh diminutive -ella) mouth; ḥamrallah (Arabic-Romance mixed word from Arabic hamra) red (+ Romance diminutive -ella) reddish.

Quantitative lexical text analysis: If one counts the Romance diminutive -ella, which occurs twice, as one word, then four old Spanish words appear in this nine-word Ḫarǧa; 45% of it is Romansh.

A third step, the interpretation, the translation into today's Spanish and other modern languages, ends the decipherment:

Madre, ¡ay qué amado!
Bajo la melenilla rubita,
Aquel cuello blanco
Y la boquita rojita.

Translation into German (by the author of this Wikipedia article):

Mother, what a lover!
Under the blonde strand
That white neck
And the reddish mouth.

Lines 23-25 ​​of Muwaschschaha N ° XIV, the bayt (fff) of the last stanza, form the thematic introduction (called 'tamhīd' in Arabic) to the mixed-language Chardscha (AA), here by an explicit inquit formula (verbum dicendi) : ya su madre los pinta.

Line 23: Cuánta hermosa moza, que de amor desatina,
Line 24: ve sus labios rojos, que besar bien querría,
Line 25: y su lindo cuello, ya su madre los pinta:

Translation into German (by the author of this Wikipedia article):

How much would the pretty girl, confused by love,
kiss his red lips and his beautiful neck,
And it paints this portrait for its mother :

The mixed-language Ḫarǧa listed above follows:

Mother, what a lover!
Under the blonde strand
That white neck
And the reddish mouth.

Significance of Muwaschschah poetry for Romance language and literature studies

The early Romanesque Chardschas, the closing verses of the Muwaschschahas, are girls' songs that are hidden in Aljamiado notation in the Arabic-Andalusian and Hebrew-Andalusian poems, the Muwaschschahas. A fierce scholarly dispute is being waged over the question of whether these song fragments are evidence of pre-existing Romance poetry (a kind of song "quote") or whether they are the creations of Arabic and Hebrew poets. The Romansh thesis is supported by the fact that such popular folk songs with the same motif, in which girls in love sing about the longing for their lover, can be found in the old Galician- Portuguese Cantigas de amigo and Castilian Villancicos . The majority of philologists now assume that the Arabic and Hebrew poets were at least influenced by oral Romance folk poetry, both formally and in terms of content.

Such a verse poem form with a double rhyme belt , changing meters and code switching as one encounters in Muwaššaḥ , was a novelty for oriental poetry. Muwashschah poetry is the result of the penetration of three cultures in al-Ándalus of the three monotheistic religions, which gave rise to a golden poetic age there during phases of tolerance:

“This type of poetry soon became popular in Islamic Spain. The oldest surviving Romanesque harga is in a muwaššaḥa, which was built before 1042. This brings us half a century behind the oldest trobador songs , which were composed by Wilhelm of Aquitaine around 1100. "

- Reinhold Kontzi : Two Romance songs from Islamic Spain. (Two Mozarabic Ḫarǧas)

From Jehuda ha-Levi , the greatest Jewish ( Sephardic ) poet of the Middle Ages (11th / 12th centuries), Hebrew muwashschahas with Romance hargas have been passed down, which is why he is considered the first poet known by name in Spanish.

“ Yehuda ha-Lewis's poetic work is extraordinarily diverse. His secular poetry includes not only hundreds of compositions in the Hebrew language, but also numerous closing verses in an early form of Old Spanish; One can rightly say that he was the first poet known by name in Spanish . His poems on love, friendship, wine and nature have preserved the freshness of immortal youth to this day. His spiritual oeuvre includes all genres of the liturgy. "

- Georg Bossong : The Sephardi: History and Culture of the Spanish Jews.

The Ḫarǧas, which are written in old Spanish dialect, provide Romance studies with the oldest completely preserved Ibero-Romanic texts of Mozarabic dialects and are also important sources for answering the controversial question of the genesis of Western poetry.

From the Muwaschschah a further form of poetry was born in al-Ándalus, the Zagal , Spanish el zéjel , an important lyrical genre. In contrast to the Muwashschah, the zagal is consistently written in vulgar Arabic colloquial language , although old Spanish words - in Aljamiado spelling - can also be found in the poems at various points, not just at the end. After the Reconquista , Spanish poets adopted this form of poetry. The zagal has found widespread use as a folk song in Spain.

Excursus: Polemical scholarly dispute over the deciphering of Romance Ḫarǧas

For Romance studies , the discovery (SM Stern 1948) of around 70 such muwaššaḥas so far, the closing verses of which are not written in the Arabic dialect, but partly in the early Romanesque, Old Spanish-Mozarabic dialect, was a sensation that is still controversial today. The difficulty of deciphering and linguistically reconstructing these early Romanesque segments is due to the fact that, like the rest of the poem text, they are written in Semitic consonant script and not in Latin letters. Such an "alienated" spelling is called Aljamiado . In the case of Ḫarǧas, which contain Semitic consonant sequences that are read in Arabic, do not make the right sense linguistically, Arabic, Hebrew and Romance philologists assume that there has been a code switching from Arabic to Romansh. They suspect that they have Roman arǧas in front of them. Al-Ándalus, the home of the Muwashshah poets, was probably a multilingual world. Both Vulgar Arabic, i.e. the Arabic-Andalusian dialect, and a Romance dialect, Old Spanish, the so-called Mozarabic, were used as colloquial language . The written language was the classical Arabic of the Koran and the classical Hebrew of the Torah . Therefore tried philologists such Ḫarǧas, the consonant cluster contained that made no sense in Arabic or Hebrew, under the rules of the Romance vocabulary to vocalize . In this way, old Spanish words came to light that were incomprehensibly "hidden" in the foreign, purely consonantic writing system - when read for the first time. This aljamiado problem makes conjectures of the original consonant text inevitable. The palaeographic medieval manuscripts are often illegible due to stains and copying errors by the copyists also require emendations . In some of the conjectures and emendations that were probably too imaginative, i.e. textual improvements , by individual philologists, an interdisciplinary scholarly polemic sparked and gave rise to hurtful articles, even in renowned specialist journals (e.g. in La corónica: A Journal of Medieval Hispanic Languages ) . The main issues in dispute are: 1) Are there really Romance Ḫarǧas or do they only exist in the imagination of some philologists? 2) Did an (allegedly) pre-existing Romance accented metric influence the previously exclusively quantitated oriental meter? 3) Are the so-called Romanesque Ḫarǧas quotes from pre-existing, old Spanish folk songs or are these supposed song quotes in reality new creations by the Arab Muwashshah authors who only wanted to create local color?

In the opinion of many Romanists, these Aljamiado verses represent a particularly valuable treasure: they give us the earliest evidence of the Spanish language and probably of all Romance poetry in general.

literature

  • Saadane Benbabaali: Poétique du muwashshah dans l'Occident musulman médiéval, thèse de 3e cycle, sous la direction de R. Arié , Paris 3, 1987.
  • Georg Bossong : The miracle of al-Andalus. The most beautiful poems from Moorish Spain . CH Beck, Munich 2005, ISBN 3-406-52906-2 . [It's an anthology ].
  • Federico Corriente: Poesía dialectal árabe y romance en Alandalús: céjeles y xarajat de Muwaššaḥat. Gredos, Madrid 1998, ISBN 84-249-1887-8 .
  • Álvaro Galmés de Fuentes: Las jarchas mozárabes. Forma y significado . Crítica, Barcelona 1994, ISBN 84-7423-667-3 .
  • Emilio García Gómez: Estudio del 'Dar at-tiraz'. Preceptiva egipcia de la Muwaššaḥa . In: Al-Andalus , Vol. 27, Nº 1, 1962, pp. 21-104, ISSN  0304-4335 .
  • Emilio García Gómez: Las jarchas de la serie arabe en su marco. Edición en caracteres latinos, version española en calco rítmico, y estudio de 43 moaxajas andaluzas . Madrid 1965, Seix Barral, Segunda Edición, Barcelona 1975, ISBN 84-322-3833-3 .
  • Martin Hartmann : The Arabic verse poem, I. The Muwaššaḥ. (= Supplementary booklets for the magazine for Assyriology. Semitic studies booklet 13/14) Weimar 1897, ISBN 90-6022-713-1 .
  • Henk Heijkoop, Otto Zwartjes: Muwaššaḥ, Zajal, Kharja. Bibliography of Strophic Poetry and Music from al-Andalus and Their Influence in East and West. Brill, Leiden 2004, ISBN 90-04-13822-6 .
  • Alan Jones: Romance Kharjas in Andalusian Arabic Muwaššaḥ Poetry. A Palaeographical Analysis . Ithaca, London 1988, ISBN 0-86372-085-4 .
  • Alan Jones, Richard Hitchcock: Studies on the Muwassah and the Kharja: proceedings of the Exeter international colloquium. Reading: Published by Ithaca for the Board of the Faculty of Oriental Studies, Oxford University 1991, ISBN 0-86372-150-8 .
  • Alan Jones (Ed.): The 'Uddat al-Jalis of Ali ibn Bishri - An Anthology of Andalusian Arabic Muwashshahat . Gibb Memorial Trust (England) 1992, ISBN 0-906094-40-2 .
  • Reinhold Kontzi : Two Romance songs from Islamic Spain. (Two Mozarabic Harǧas). In: Romania cantat. Dedicated to Gerhard Rohlfs on the occasion of his 85th birthday. Volume II Interpretations . Narr, Tübingen 1980, ISBN 3-87808-509-5 , pp. 305-318. in Google Book Search.
  • James T. Monroe: Which Came First, the Zagal or the Muwass'a? Some evidence for the oral origin of Hispano-Arabic strophic poetry. In: Oral Tradition , 4 / 1-2 (1989), pp. 38–64 full text (PDF; 230 kB)
  • James T. Monroe: Zajal and Muwashshaha. Hispano-arabic Poetry and the Romance tradition. In: Salma Khadra Jayyusi, Manuela Marín (Ed.): The Legacy of Muslim Spain . Brill, Leiden 1992, ISBN 90-04-09599-3 , excerpts in the Google book search.
  • Ahmed Ounane: Clase para estudiantes argelinos: Cómo presentar el estudio de una moaxaja . Universidad de Orán (Algeria, 2005) full text (PDF; 471 kB) on cvc.cervantes.es
  • Otto Zwartjes: Love Songs from al-Andalus. History, Structure and Meaning of the Kharja (Medieval Iberian Peninsula). Brill, Leiden 1997, ISBN 90-04-10694-4 , p. 298, excerpts in the Google book search

Web links

References and comments

  1. ↑ The collective form, the Muwaššaḥ , denotes the genre, the Muwaššaḥa the individual concrete poem; the Arabic plural form is Muwaššaḥāt . In German-language literature, the plural form of spelling is usually: Muwaššaḥas .
  2. ↑ Muqaddam Ben Muafa Al Qabrí - Biography and Work ( Memento of the original from May 25, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. in Spanish at: poetasandaluces.com @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.poetasandaluces.com
  3. ↑ In spite of its (unfortunate) name, the so-called "Mozarabic" is not Arabic, but a very early Ibero-Romanic, primeval Old Spanish.
  4. ↑ Otto Zwartjes: Love Songs from al-Andalus. History, Structure and Meaning of the Kharja (Medieval Iberian Peninsula) . Brill, Leiden 1997, ISBN 90-04-10694-4 , p. 298, excerpts in the Google book search
  5. ↑ Alan Jones: Romance Kharjas in Andalusian Arabic muwaššah Poetry. A Palaeographical Analysis . Ithaca, London 1988, ISBN 0-86372-085-4 , p. 11.
  6. ↑ Georg Bossong : The miracle of al-Andalus. The most beautiful poems from Moorish Spain. CH Beck, Munich 2005, ISBN 3-406-52906-2 .
  7. ↑ a b Samuel Miklos Stern: Les vers finaux en espagnol dans les Muwaššaḥs hispano-hébraïques. A contribution à l'histoire du Muwaššaḥ et à l'étude du vieux dialecte espagnol «mozarabe» . In: Al-Andalus Revista de las escuelas de estudios arabes de Madrid y Granada , XII (1948), pp. 330-332. Here is the full text of the earliest Ḫarǧa of this oldest Jarcha (N ° 18 after star) on jarchas.net .
  8. ↑ Julia Ashtiany: Abbasid Belles Lettres .The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature. chapter 13: F. Harb: Wine poetry (khamriyyāt). 1990, ISBN 0-521-24016-6 , pp. 202-218, (online)
  9. ↑ Georg Bossong : The miracle of al-Andalus. The most beautiful poems from Moorish Spain . CH Beck, Munich 2005, pp. 20-21.
  10. ↑ a b Theodor Frings: Old Spanish girl songs from the Minnesang spring. In: Contributions to the history of the German language and literature . Volume 1951, issue 73, pp. 176-196, ISSN  1865-9373 , doi : 10.1515 / bgsl.1951.1951.73.176
  11. ↑ Otto Zwartjes: Love Songs from al-Andalus. History, Structure and Meaning of the Kharja (Medieval Iberian Peninsula). Brill, Leiden 1997, ISBN 90-04-10694-4 , p. 48, excerpts in the Google book search
  12. ↑ Martin Hartmann: The Arabic verse poem, I. Das Muwaššaḥ. (= Supplementary booklets for the magazine for Assyriology. Semitic studies booklet 13/14) Weimar 1897, ISBN 90-6022-713-1 , pp. 101-102.
  13. ^ Emilio García Gómez: Estudio del 'Dar al-ṭirāz'. Preceptiva egipcia de la Muwaššaḥa . In: Al-Andalus , Vol. 27, Nº 1, 1962, pp. 21-104, ISSN  0304-4335 .
  14. ↑ a b Martin Hartmann: The Arabic verse poem, I. Das Muwaššaḥ. (= Supplementary booklets for the magazine for Assyriology. Semitic studies booklet 13/14) Weimar 1897, ISBN 90-6022-713-1 , p. 101.
  15. ↑ Georg Bossong : The miracle of al-Andalus. The most beautiful poems from Moorish Spain . CH Beck, Munich 2005, p. 26.
  16. ^ Emilio García Gómez: Las jarchas de la serie arabe en su marco. Edición en caracteres latinos, version española en calco rítmico, y estudio de 43 moaxajas andaluzas . Madrid 1965, Seix Barral, Segunda Edición, Barcelona 1975, ISBN 84-322-3833-3 , pp. 171-177, 'XIV'.
  17. ↑ In addition: Ahmed Ounane: Clase para estudiantes argelinos: Cómo presentar el estudio de una moaxaja . Universidad de Orán (Algeria, 2005) full text pdf ( memento of the original from March 24, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. on: cvc.cervantes.es @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / cvc.cervantes.es
  18. ^ Alan Jones (Ed.): The 'Uddat al-jālis of Ali ibn Bishri - An Anthology of Andalusian Arabic Muwashshahat . Gibb Memorial Trust (England) 1992, ISBN 0-906094-40-2 .
  19. ↑ Jarcha No. 35 in various readings ( Memento of the original from April 16, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. - three-step decipherment: 1.  transliteration - 2. transcription ( vocalization ) - 3. translation (interpretation). After Alma Wood Rivera: Las jarchas mozárabes: Una compilación de lecturas . Diploma thesis, Monterrey (México) 1969. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.jarchas.net
  20. ↑ Alan Jones: Romance Kharjas in Andalusian Arabic muwaššah Poetry. A Palaeographical Analysis . Ithaca London 1988, ISBN 0-86372-085-4 , pp. 112-115 (Kharja 14).
  21. ↑ Federico Corriente: Poesía dialectal árabe y romance en Alandalús: céjeles y xarajat de Muwaššaḥat. Gredos, Madrid 1998, ISBN 84-249-1887-8 , p. 285.
  22. ↑ Álvaro Galmés de Fuentes: Las jarchas mozárabes y la tradición lírica romanica. In: Pedro M. Piñero Ramírez (ed.): Lírica popular, lírica tradicional: lecciones en homenaje a Don Emilio García Gómez. Universidad de Sevilla 1998, ISBN 84-472-0434-0 , pp. 28-53, excerpt in the Google book search
  23. ↑ Reinhold Kontzi: Two Romance songs from Islamic Spain. (Two Mozarabic Ḫarǧas) . In: Romania cantat. Dedicated to Gerhard Rohlfs on the occasion of his 85th birthday . Volume II Interpretations. Narr, Tübingen 1980, ISBN 3-87808-509-5 , p. 308 in the Google book search.
  24. ↑ Alma Wood Rivera: Las jarchas mozárabes: Una compilación de lecturas , diploma thesis, Monterrey (México) 1969, Jehuda ha-Levi's old Spanish Ḫarǧas (jarchas) on jarchas.net
  25. ^ Dámaso Alonso: Cancioncillas de amigo mozárabes. Primavera temprana de la lírica europea. In: Revista de Filología Española 33 (1949), p. 298.
  26. ↑ Georg Bossong: The Sephardi: History and Culture of Spanish Jews , Beck 2008, ISBN 978-3-406-56238-9 , ( limited preview in Google book search)
  27. ↑ Alan Jones: Romance Kharjas in Andalusian Arabic muwaššah Poetry. A Palaeographical Analysis . Ithaca London 1988, ISBN 0-86372-085-4 .
  28. ^ Karla Mallette: European Modernity and the Arab Mediterranean . University of Pennsylvania Press 2010, p. 270, footnote 20 on the "polemical Khardja debate", ISBN 978-0-8122-4241-6 in the Google book search
  29. ↑ Samuel G. Armistead: Kharjas and Villancianos . In: Journal of Arabic Literature . XXXIV, 1–2, Brill, 2003: “Scholarship surrounding the 'kharjas', concluding qufls in the Hispano-Romance Mozarabic dialect, appended to muwashshaḥāt written in Arabic or Hebrew by 11th-to-14th-century Muslim and Jewish authors in al- Andalus, has been characterized by bitterly acrimonious polemics, involving sometimes even personal ad hominem criticism. "