Galician language

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Galician (galego)

Spoken in

Spain
Portugal
speaker up to 3.5 million
Linguistic
classification
Official status
Official language in Spain (Autonomous Community of Galicia )
Language codes
ISO 639 -1

gl

ISO 639 -2

glg

ISO 639-3

glg

The Galician language , also Galegic language (Galician and Portuguese galego ; Spanish gallego ), belongs to the Ibero-Roman branch of the Romance languages and is spoken by around three million people in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula . Politically it has the status of a minority language in Spain ; in the Autonomous Region of Galicia it has been in use as the standardized official language alongside Spanish since 1982 . It is also widespread in some of the neighboring regions that belong to the provinces of Asturias , León and Zamora . Galician is closely related to its Ibero-Romanic neighboring languages, namely to Spanish (Castilian) and even more closely to Portuguese , with which it originally formed a unit (the Galician-Portuguese language ) and typologically still forms a single block of languages ​​today.

history

Origin of the Galician language

The numerous settlement centers of Indo-European ethnic groups ( castros ), which from the 5th century BC Existed in the north-west of today's Spain, indicate that a certain cultural unity existed in this region even before the Roman conquest. In Roman times, the area formed an administrative unit: the Hispania Citerior Nova Antonina , created by Caracalla's reform around 216 AD . At the end of the 3rd century it was declared a separate Roman province under Diocletian with the name Gallaecia . It is assumed that Galician developed from the Latin of the Roman colonizers of Galicia and that two parallel language systems Latin and Galician existed as early as the 8th century .

High and late Middle Ages

Linguistic development of south-western Europe in the 2nd millennium AD

In the Middle Ages, Galician-Portuguese formed a linguistic unit, which, however, broke up due to the political independence of Portugal from the middle of the 12th century. Gradually, Portuguese moved away from the northern language and developed its own characteristics.

Before that, Galician-Portuguese experienced a heyday as a supraregional literary language of high cultural prestige, in which Iberian troubadour poetry was written. Galician-Portuguese is one of the most important European literary languages ​​of the High Middle Ages and is passed down through cancioneiros (song collections). From the 13th century, Galicia increasingly fell under Castilian influence and the center of Galician-language poetry production shifted to the royal courts of Portugal and Castile . The high phase of the now increasingly Castilian literary language came to an end a little later.

Received documents from areas of life such as economy and religion testify that Galician was undoubtedly the language of all social strata as an oral and written medium in the 14th and 15th centuries. In contrast, Castilian was used to establish contact with the Castilian center of power. This diglossia increased from the 15th century onwards as a result of the disempowerment of the Galician nobility.

The dark centuries

From the 16th century the Galician rural population increasingly emigrated from the economically underdeveloped peripheral area of ​​Galicia towards the center and south of the Iberian Peninsula. There they were usually hired as seasonal workers or low-level servants, which resulted in direct contact between the lowest Galician-speaking and the highest Castilian-speaking social groups. In Spain, a negative image arose of the Galicians and their language, which was associated with ignorance, poverty and misery, so that writers avoided the use of the idiom .

Due to the almost complete disappearance of Galician as a written language, the period between the 16th and 18th centuries is referred to in linguistic historiography as os séculos escuros ("the dark centuries"). The use of Galician was limited to oral communication, while Castilian was used almost exclusively for writing in literary, professional and official fields. This was the language of the intellectual elites who, due to a lack of career opportunities, emigrated from their Galician homeland to the Castilian centers of power.

Some of the little information available today on the Galician language of the 18th century is due to the works of Martín Sarmiento. The Benedictine monk and polymath went on several trips to Galicia, on which he carried out empirical studies on Galician onomastics and lexicons. However, his work was not published by himself, but only by the Spanish linguist Pensado in the 1960s and 70s.

Linguistic and literary rebirth: Rexurdimento

Since the late 18th century, Galicia and other areas of Western Europe began to discover the importance of the local language and history. The preoccupation with the Galician culture and the search for one's own identity resulted in a growing regional self-confidence. Soon there were calls for more autonomy in relation to Castile.

With the publication of Rosalía de Castro's first volume of poetry ( Cantares gallegos ) around 1863, the actual rexurdimento (from Galician rexurdir , ' re- sprout' ) began. With the most famous book in Galician literature, the author wanted on the one hand to represent her homeland and on the other hand to pay tribute to its language. The poets Curros Enríquez ( Aires da miña terra, 1880) and Eduardo Pondal ( Queixumes dos pinos, 1886) also pursued the goal of developing Galician into a recognized and cultivated language. In general, however, its use as a written language was limited to literature, especially poetry, while Castilian remained the official and scientific written language .

There were also some difficulties associated with the literary use of Galician. For example, castellanisms often had to be used for abstract terms, because the Galician vocabulary was tailored almost exclusively to colloquial language and certain professions. In addition, the only Galician language spoken for centuries lacked a standard that regulates areas such as orthography and syntax.

The time of the Franco dictatorship

At the beginning of the 20th century, Galician was first used by intellectuals, most of whom came from the Castilian-speaking upper class and who represented a galeguismo , for texts such as prose pieces , dramas and essays. Efforts were also made to use the idiom orally, not in everyday language. Furthermore, the establishment of various groups committed to promoting their language in all public and private spheres contributed to the general rise of Galician. Examples of this are the Irmandades da Fala organization founded in 1916 and the Seminario de Estudos Galegos founded in 1923 .

In the Second Republic , Galician was declared the official language in a statute of autonomy. However, as a result of the outbreak of civil war , this statute was never implemented. After the victory of General Francisco Franco , who was born in Galicia and whose dictatorial rule was shaped by the centralistic doctrine of the Spanish unified state , the official use of all non-Castilian idioms was banned. As a result, many writers interrupted their literary activities, continued to write in Castilian or emigrated abroad, especially to Latin America, where there were strong Galician emigrant communities.

In the 1950s, Spain's entry into UNESCO resulted in a slight relaxation of the language-political situation and an intellectual minority tried again to revive the Galician language. As a result of the founding of the publishing house Galaxia in 1951, Galician texts such as novels or philosophical publications appeared again for the first time. The press censorship prevented this from happening at times. In 1962, the volume of poems Longa noite de pedra by Celso Emilio Ferreiro was published in Vigo, which thematized the author's desire for his mother tongue, but also the resistance to integristic centralism, and which became well known throughout Spain.

Legalization and the dispute over standards

After Franco's death and with the 1978 constitution, the country's linguistic diversity was considered a cultural heritage worthy of protection. Galicia received (like Catalonia and the Basque Country ) the special status of a nacionalidad histórica and Galician acquired (analogous to Catalan and Basque) a co-official status alongside Castilian. Further steps were the Statute of Autonomy of Galicia of 1981 and the "Law on Linguistic Normalization" ( Lei de normalización lingüística ) of 1983. Galician was officially equated with Castilian: as the language of public life, local administration and teaching.

In 1985 the public radio and television stations Radio Galega and Televisión de Galicia were founded . In the field of print media, the weekly newspaper A Nosa Terra , which has appeared regularly since 1977, should be mentioned. The production of Galician-language books has increased steadily since 1980 and encompasses all genres from fiction to specialist literature . The latter plays a major role in the education sector, where Galician is now used as a school subject and course of study and as the language of instruction for other subjects.

A process that has not yet been finally concluded and which has led to controversial disputes to this day is the development of a uniform Galician standard . The main focus is on orthographic, but also morphological, lexical, cultural and political questions. The so-called reintegrationists advocate the reintegration of Galician into the Portuguese- speaking area and consider Galician and Portuguese as varieties of a common language. The vocabulary of the galego reintegrado should therefore be derived as far as possible from its roots in the Galician-Portuguese language family and its spelling is based on the current Portuguese spelling. In contrast, the Autonomists have set themselves the goal of establishing Galician as an independent Romance language alongside Portuguese and Castilian. They argue that, due to their centuries-long separation, Galicia and Portugal have become so far apart, both culturally and linguistically, that Galician cannot be integrated into the lusophone- speaking area. In addition, Galician can only be permanently preserved as an autonomous language ( galego identificado ). The autonomism, which determines the official language policy of the regional government and which prevailed in the official language standard created in 1982, is in practice associated with clear orthographical and morphological approximations to Spanish. In doing so, he is in line with the nationality-political line of the conservative People's Party , which has ruled Galicia almost continuously since the early 1980s and sees linguistic rapprochement with Portugal as a threat to the unity of Spain.

In addition to the two main positions, the reintegracionismo and the autonomismo, there are a few other currents, especially within the reintegrationists. In view of the threatening decline in the number of speakers since the turn of the millennium, a mediating current has also formed, the postura intermedia, which strives for a cross-camp compromise to save the Galician language.

use

Proportion of the population in the Galicia region using Galician as the first language.

Compared to other Spanish regions, the number of speakers of the local language is relatively highest in Galicia. This can be justified primarily with the relatively homogeneous population due to the geographical peripheral location of Galicia. More than 90% of residents say they understand Galician and around two-thirds say they use it primarily. The number of monolingual Galician speakers decreases with decreasing age and increasing urbanity .

Nowadays, Galician is heavily mixed with Castilian. One of the reasons for this is that all speakers are largely familiar with the Castilian contact language and that interference is not corrected due to lack of understanding or similar delimitation mechanisms. In addition, the traditional branches of the economy such as agriculture or fishing, in which monolinguals are often still active, are becoming increasingly less important. Despite the majority of the population's positive attitude towards the Galician language, its long-term existence is not guaranteed.

Classification

For a long time there was disagreement as to whether Galician was a language or a dialect . In most of the relevant works of German Romance studies from the 19th century, it is identified as a dialect of Portuguese. This is due to the fact that the few existing studies mainly dealt with Galician of the Middle Ages and developments over the past hundred years have gone unnoticed. The argument was based on the small linguistic difference between Galician and Portuguese as well as their common past and cultural togetherness.

In Galicia, too, it was for some time believed that the idiom used there was a dialect. After all, Galician was not very prestigious and was limited to certain communication situations. In addition, parts of the population considered it to be a rural dialect of Castilian due to its linguistic and structural similarities with Castilian and the lack of standardized standard form .

Article 5 of the Estatut of Galicia, which came into force in 1981, states: A lingua propia de Galicia é o galego (“Galician is Galicia’s own language”). Today there is agreement within and outside of Galicia that Galician is an independent Romance language . This is less due to the linguistic distance to Portuguese and Castilian, but above all to its autonomous language development. Galician is therefore an extension language .

Dialectal structure

Although Galician has only slight dialectal variations , one can distinguish between three dialect groups : East Galician, Central Galician and West Galician. The differences lie in the phonetic-phonological as well as in the morphological area, for example with regard to the presence of the gheada (only in West Galician) or with regard to the plural forms of nouns ending in -l or -n, such as can "dog" ( Elimination of the consonant in Central Galician : cas "dogs"; ending in -is in East Galician: cais; preservation of the consonant in Southwest Galician : cans, but elimination of the consonant in Northwest Galician : cas ). Because of the sporadic dialectal differences between the northern and southern areas within western Galicia, the dialect zones are sometimes divided into four parts.

Language comparison to Castilian and Portuguese

phonetics

Vocal system

Galician has seven vowel phonemes: / a /, / e /, / ɛ /, / i /, / o /, / ɔ /, / u /. In contrast to the Castilian sound system, apart from the five cardinal vowels a, e, i, o and u , different degrees of opening of e and o are distinguished. The degree of opening of these tone vowels is, for example, meaningful in the following two minimal pairs : vés / bɛs / "du kommst" - ves / bes / "du see" and óso / ɔso / "bones" - oso / oso / "bear".

Front Central Back
Closed / i / / u /
Half closed / e / /O/
Half open / ɛ / / ɔ /
Open / a /

In addition to those that exist in the Castilian sound system, the Galician system includes two further diphthongs : ou (e.g. ouro "gold") and ei (e.g. xaneiro "January"). On the basis of these word examples it can also be shown that Galician has sometimes preserved the Latin sound, while Castilian shows innovative elements (Latin au rum "Gold"> Gal. Ou ro ; Castilian. O ro and Latin Ian ua rius " January “> gal. Xan ei ro ; kastil. En e ro ). However, there are also cases in which Galician has developed from Latin, while Castilian still contains archaic structures (e.g. with regard to the intervowel -n-: Latin lu n a "moon"> Gal. Lua ; kastil. lu n a ).

In contrast to Portuguese, there are no nasal vowels in Galician, with the exception of a variety in the eastern part of Galicia . Instead, the vowels usually precede velar nasal consonants (e.g. camión [kaˈmjoŋ] "truck"). Another difference to Portuguese concerns its realization of the final syllable, unstressed o as [u] and e as [ə], which occurs rarely in Galician (e.g. Gal. Viño [ˈbiɲo] "wine", o > [o] ; port. vinho [ˈviɲu] and gal. arte [ˈarte] "art", e > [e]; port. arte ['artə]).

Consonant system

Occlusive Fricative Affrictive nasal Liquid
stless steadfast stless steadfast stless steadfast lateral vibrant
Bilabial / p / / b / / m /
Labiodental / f /
Dental / t / / d / / θ /
Alveolar / s / / n / / l / / r / / ɾ /
Palatal / ʃ / / ʧ / / ɲ / / ʎ /
Velar / k / /G/ / ŋ /

The peculiarities of the Galician consonant system include the velar nasal phoneme / ŋ / (e.g. unha [ˈuŋa] "one") and the palatal sibilant / ʃ / (e.g. xoven [ˈʃɔβeŋ] "young"). A common phenomenon in western Galicia is the so-called gheada, the aspirated or velar - fricative pronunciation of / g / (e.g. galego [haˈleho] "Galician"). It is a stigmatized form of language and is considered peasant and vulgar in Galicia on the one hand, but also as a distinction from Castilian on the other.

Although Galician has a close systematic relationship with Portuguese, the two varieties have been shown to have diverged over the course of history. In addition to the differences already mentioned, this applies, for example, to the phase of disunification . In contrast to Portuguese, which has preserved the opposition between voiceless and voiced sibilants, there are no more voiced sibilants in Galician. In terms of the phonological system, it can be stated that Galician is closer to Castilian than to Portuguese.

Morphosyntax

In terms of morphology and especially syntax, the grammar of Galician corresponds to that of Portuguese to a large extent.

items

Definite article:

Feminine Masculine
Singular / plural a / as o / os

Example: a muller (the woman), os homes (the men)

The form of the definite article is the same in Galician and Portuguese. In Galician there is also a second variant of the definite article, whose allomorphic form -lo (s), -la (s) is only used after the final consonant -r or -s (e.g. come-lo caldo "eat the soup" ).


Indefinite article:

Feminine Masculine
Singular / plural unha / unhas un / us

Example: unha muller (a woman), uns homes (some men)


Article prepositions:

Similar to Portuguese, some prepositions are pulled together with subsequent articles.

Preposition + definite article:

Singular / plural
Feminine Masculine
a (to, to) á / ás ó / ós
de (from, from) there / that do / dos
por (through, for) pola / polas polo / polos
con (with) coa / coas co / cos
en (in, on) na / nas no / nos

Example: Vou ó médico . (I go to the doctor.)

Preposition + indefinite article:

Singular / plural
Feminine Masculine
de (from, from) dunha / dunhas dun / duns
en (in, on) nunha / nunhas now / nuns

Example: Traballo now taller . (I work in a workshop.)

pronoun

Personal pronouns:

Nominative
(as subject)		 Ablative
(after prepositions)		 Dative
(indirect object)		 Accusative
(direct object)
1.P.Sg. eu min me me
2.P.Sg. ti ti che te
3.P.Sg. el / ela / vostede el / ela / vostede ll o / a
1.P.Pl. nós nós nos nos
2.P.Pl. vós vós vos vos
3.P.Pl. eles / elas / vostedes eles / elas / vostedes lles os / as

Unlike its neighboring languages, Galician maintains the distinction between direct and indirect object pronouns in the 2nd P. ( te / che ).

As in European Portuguese, the unstressed personal pronouns are appended directly to the inflected verb form in affirmative statements (e.g. Envíovos as chaves “I'll send you the keys”). In negative statements (e.g. Non o coñezo “I don't know him”) as well as in interrogative sentences (e.g. ¿Que che dixo? “What did he tell you?”), However, the personal pronoun takes a proklitic position.

Possessive pronouns:

In Galician, as is usually the case in Portuguese, the possessive pronouns come with the definite article (e.g. a miña amiga "my girlfriend"; os vosos cans "your dogs").

Singular / plural
Feminine Masculine
1.P.Sg. a miña / as miñas o meu / os meus
2.P.Sg. a túa / as túas o teu / os teus
3.P.Sg. a súa / as súas o seu / os seus
1.P.Pl. a nosa / as nosas o noso / os nosos
2.P.Pl. a vosa / as vosas o voso / os vosos
3.P.Pl. a súa / as súas o seu / os seus

Verbs

As in Castilian and Portuguese, a distinction is made between three conjugation classes in Galician. If the verbal systems largely agree, there are still some differences in the forms (e.g. in the 2nd point of the present tense and in the 2nd point of the perfect tense).

Present:

a-conjugation
(e.g. fal a r "speak")		 e-conjugation
(e.g. entend e r "understand")		 i-conjugation
(e.g. abr i r "open")
1.P.Sg. fal o entend o abr o
2.P.Sg. fal as entend it abr it
3.P.Sg. fal a entend e abr e
1.P.Pl. fal amos entend emos abr imos
2.P.Pl. fal ades entend edes abr ides
3.P.Pl. fall on entend en abr en

Many commonly used verbs have irregular forms (e.g. ter “have”: teño / tes / ten / temos / tedes / teñen ).

Past tense: The most important forms of the past tense are the historical perfect and the past tense. The Galician and Portuguese languages ​​prefer synthetically formed tenses over Castilian (e.g. Castilian Todavía no ha llegado “He / she has not arrived yet”; Gal. Aínda non chegou ). Typical of Galician is also its wealth of less grammatical verbal phrases (e.g. ter + participle: teño escrito “I wrote”).

Examples of the regular formation of the historical perfect:

a-conjugation
(e.g. fal a r "speak")		 e-conjugation
(e.g. entend e r "understand")		 i-conjugation
(e.g. abr i r "open")
1.P.Sg. fall egg entend ín abr ín
2.P.Sg. fal aches entend iches abr iches
3.P.Sg. fal ou entend eu abr iu
1.P.Pl. fal amos entend imos abr imos
2.P.Pl. fal astes entend is it abr istes
3.P.Pl. fal aron entend eron abr iron

The historical perfect is used to express completed actions and actions that have taken place one after the other.

Example: Onte fomos a un bar, bebimos unha cervexa e despois vimos unha película no cinema. (Yesterday we went to a pub, had a beer and then went to the cinema to watch a movie.)

The forms of the past tense correspond to those of Castilian, with the exception of the 2nd P.Pl. (Gal. -abades / -iades / -iades ; Castilian -abais / -íais / -íais). It is used for recurring actions and descriptions of states in the past tense.

Example: Antes traballaba en Ourense. "I used to work in Ourense."

Future tense:

Galician, like its neighboring languages, has two types of future tense, of which only the form based on the verb ir + infinitive is used in colloquial language (e.g. Gal. Imos falar con ela mañá “We will be with her tomorrow speak "; Castilian. Vamos a hablar con ella mañana ).

Lexicons

The Galician vocabulary has a variety of castellanisms. This is mainly due to the fact that the dialect Galician lacked its own innovative strength for a while and therefore the newly created need for expression, for example in the area of ​​modern technology, was met by adopting castellanisms. Today's language planning is now trying to replace these castellanisms by reviving traditional Galician forms or by coining new Galician terms.

The Galician vocabulary is also very similar to Portuguese. However, there are many words in Galician that are already considered out of date in Portuguese or are no longer in use at all (e.g. gal. Billa "key", gal. Brétema "fog"). In addition, there are some terms that have an identical or similar form in both varieties, but differ in their meaning from one another (e.g. coche gal. "Car", Portuguese "coach"; almorzo gal. "Breakfast") , almoço port. "Lunch").

Text example

In German from " The Little Prince ":

Oh, little prince, little by little I have understood your little melancholy life. For a long time you had nothing but the loveliness of the sunsets to dissipate yourself. I found out on the morning of the fourth day when you said to me: I love the sunsets very much.

In Galician from O Principiño:

¡Ah, meu principiño, así fun comprendendo eu, pouquiño a pouco, a túa vidiña melancólica! Durante moito tempo non tiveches outra distracción que a dozura que sentías ó contemplar o solpor. Aprendín este novo detalle cando na mañá do cuarto día me dixeches: Gústame moito o solpor.

In Castilian from El Principito:

¡Ah, principito! Así, poco a poco, comprendí tu pequeña vida melancólica. Durante mucho tiempo tu única distracción fue la suavidad de las puestas de sol.Me enteré de este nuevo detalle, en la mañana del cuarto día, cuando me dijiste: Me encantan las puestas de sol.

In Portuguese from O Principezinho:

Ah, principezinho! Assim fui conhecendo, aos poucos, a tua melancólica vidinha! Durante muito tempo, a tua única distração foi a beleza dos crepúsculos. Fiquei a sabê-lo na manhã do quarto dia, quando me disseste: Gosto muito dos pores do sol.

See also

literature

Overview works and phrasebook

  • Jaine E. Beswick: Art. Galician. In: Keith Brown (Ed.): Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (ELL). 2nd edition of the MBW, but 1st edition of the Elsevier publishing house. Volume 4. Elsevier, Amsterdam 2006, ISBN 0-08-044360-5 , pp. 717-720.
  • Katharina Diestelmeier, D. Casado-Neira: Galician - word for word (=  gibberish . Band 103 ). 2., re-edit, verb. Edition. Reise Know-How Rump, Bielefeld 2016, ISBN 978-3-8317-6470-9 .
  • Günter Holtus , Michael Metzeltin , Christian Schmitt (Hrsg.): Lexicon of Romance Linguistics . (LRL). Volume 6, 2: Galegic, Portuguese / Gallego, Português. Max Niemeyer Verlag, Tübingen 1994, ISBN 3-484-50336-X , pp. 1–129.

Single topics

  • Sabine Albrecht: The standard norm of Galician (= treatises on language and literature. Volume 47). Romanistic publishing house, Bonn 1992.
  • Christian Bahr: Galicia: Language rescue through translation? Review of Traducción de una cultura emergente. La literatura gallega contemporánea en el exterior by Áurea Fernández Rodríguez, Iolanda Galanes Santos, Ana Luna Alonso and Silvia Montero Küpper. In: ReLÜ . Review magazine , 14, 2013 ( relue-online.de ).
  • Jaine E. Beswick: Regional Nationalism in Spain. Language Use and Ethnic Identity in Galicia (= Linguistic diversity and language rights. Volume 5). Multilingual Matters, Clevedon 2007, ISBN 978-1-85359-979-8 .
  • Adrian Bröking: Linguistic Dynamics in Galicia. Studies on the linguistic variation in Spain's northwest. Narr, Tübingen 2002.
  • Johannes Kabatek: The speakers as linguists: phenomena of interference and language change depicted in contemporary Galician. Max Niemeyer Verlag, Tübingen 1996.
  • Johannes Kabatek, Claus D. Pusch: Spanish Linguistics. An introduction (= bachelor knowledge ). 2nd Edition. Narr Francke Attempto, Tübingen 2009, pp. 199–201 ( Section 9.5.1.3. Galician and Spanish deals with the influence of Galician on the Spanish spoken in Galicia).
  • Michaela Luyken: The Galician. A case study on the problem of writing Romansh minority languages. Egert Verlag, Wilhelmsfeld 1994.

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Günter Holtus (ed.) U. a .: Lexicon of Romance Linguistics . Volume VI / 2: Galegic, Portuguese. Max Niemeyer Verlag, Tübingen 1994, ISBN 3-484-50336-X .
  2. ↑ Beswick (2006), p. 717, gives the number of speakers at 3.5 million; Kabatek (2009), p. 199, estimates only 2.4 million speakers.
  3. ↑ a b Helmut Berschin, Julio Fernández-Sevilla, Josef Felixberger: The Spanish language. Distribution, history, structure. 4th, revised edition. Georg Olms Verlag, Hildesheim 2012, ISBN 3-19-004057-5 , p. 39.
  4. ↑ Luyken 1994, p. 152.
  5. ↑ a b c d Kabatek 2009, p. 199.
  6. ↑ a b Diestelmeier & Casado-Neira 2016, pp. 12-14.
  7. ↑ Bröking 2002, p. 48.
  8. ↑ Kabatek 1996, p. 45.
  9. ↑ Albrecht 1992, p. 3.
  10. ↑ Bröking 2002, p. 54 f.
  11. ↑ Bröking 2002, p. 56 ff.
  12. ↑ a b Bröking 2002, p. 60.
  13. ↑ Luyken 1994, p. 187.
  14. ↑ Bröking 2002, p. 59.
  15. ↑ Luyken 1994, p. 186.
  16. ↑ Luyken 1994, p. 188 f.
  17. ↑ Luyken 1994, p. 198 ff.
  18. ↑ Luyken 1994, p. 195.
  19. ↑ Luyken 1994, p. 196 f.
  20. ↑ Kabatek 1996, p. 49.
  21. ↑ Luyken 1994, p. 198 ff.
  22. ↑ Bröking 2002, p. 99 f.
  23. ↑ Kabatek 1996, p. 51.
  24. ↑ Bröking 2002, p. 103.
  25. ↑ Beswick 2007, p. 85 f.
  26. ↑ Kabatek 1996, p. 53 f.
  27. ↑ a b Kabatek 2009, p. 200.
  28. ↑ Luyken 1994, p. 147 ff.
  29. ↑ Luyken 1994, p. 127 ff.
  30. ↑ Kabatek 1996, p. 89 f.
  31. ↑ Luyken 1994, p. 135 f.
  32. ↑ a b Albrecht 1992, p. 10.
  33. ↑ Beswick 2007, p. 119 f.
  34. ↑ Luyken 1994, p. 131.
  35. ↑ Kabatek 1996, p. 117.
  36. ↑ a b Diestelmeier & Casado-Neira 2016, pp. 20–21.
  37. ↑ Albrecht 1992, p. 10 f.
  38. ↑ a b Diestelmeier & Casado-Neira, pp. 47–51.
  39. ↑ Albrecht 1992, p. 11.
  40. ↑ Diestelmeier & Casado-Neira 2016, pp. 29, 46–47.
  41. ↑ Diestelmeier & Casado-Neira 2016, p. 28.
  42. ↑ Luyken 1994, p. 133.
  43. ↑ a b c d Diestelmeier & Casado-Neira 2016, pp. 30–45.
  44. ↑ Kabatek 1996, p. 126 ff.
  45. ↑ Kabatek 1996, p. 153.
  46. ↑ Luyken 1994, p. 134.
  47. ↑ Antoine de Saint-Exupéry : The little prince. 8th edition. Karl Rauch Verlag, Düsseldorf 2004, ISBN 3-7920-0028-8 , p. 33.
  48. ^ Antoine de Saint-Exupéry: O Principiño. Editorial Galaxia, Vigo 2002, p. 24.
  49. ^ Antoine de Saint-Exupéry: El Principito. Editorial Salamandra, Barcelona 2008, p. 26.
  50. ^ Antoine de Saint-Exupéry: O Principezinho. Editora Presença, Lisbon 2012, p. 26.