Art in the realm of Kush
The art in the kingdom of Kush , like the entire culture of this African state in today's Sudan, is significantly influenced by ancient Egypt . As in Kushitic history, two distinct phases can be distinguished in art: In the Napatan period (approx. 750-300 BC) the influence of Egyptian art is very strong. Without inscriptions and information about the place where they were found, it is sometimes hardly possible to assign certain works of art to one or the other cultural group. In the Meroitic phase (approx. 300 BC - 350 AD) a merging of Egyptian, Hellenistic and African elements can be observed. Despite the obvious Egyptian influence, Kushitic art has its own character.
prehistory
In the Egyptian New Kingdom , Nubia was an Egyptian province. Egyptian pharaohs built temples in Nubia, and the upper class living here, whether they came from Egypt or were indigenous, largely followed Egyptian models. This can be seen in the tombs, but settlements like Sesebi are largely Egyptian in terms of layout and architecture . Around 1000 BC The supremacy of Egypt slowly came to an end. The details of the events are not really clear so far, and it is possible that Egyptian control continued to exist, especially in Lower Nubia. However, little dated monuments are known from this period that provide an idea of the material culture, and there are virtually no works of art that can be dated to this period with certainty. A significant exception is the enigmatic inscription of Queen Karimala , which is affixed to one of the walls of the Temple of Semna . In front of the inscription is the image of Karimala, standing in front of the goddess Isis. The work is executed in a bas-relief. Karimala wears a long robe and a double feather crown. The style of the representation is completely in the tradition of Ramessid reliefs. In this context, some steles and monuments of Nubian rulers (e.g. Aryamani ) should also be mentioned, which are also Ramessid in style. The dating of these monuments is highly controversial in research. Assuming that they are to be classified in the period shortly after the New Kingdom, this may well be the case for Nubian art production between 1000 and 750 BC. Speak, which strongly continued the Ramessid style.
Only with the appearance of the first Nubian rulers known by name did the sources flow more abundantly. These rulers left numerous monuments, and a Nubian style of its own can now be discerned.
architecture
Pyramids
The first generations of Nubian rulers were buried under burial mounds. This changed with the conquest of parts of Egypt by the Nubians. The most striking monuments of Kushitic culture are now the royal pyramids. They are made of stone, but much smaller than their Egyptian counterparts. They also have a steeper angle and probably no point, but were crowned by a small cylinder. Pyramids were built in Nubia in the New Kingdom by high officials residing there, so that their construction could be influenced by the Nubian pyramids of the New Kingdom. In addition, at the time when the Nubian kings ruled, there was a strong return to ancient Egyptian traditions, and so the Nubian rulers may have consciously resorted to a time that was considered exemplary when building the pyramids.
The Nubian pyramids consisted of three parts. There was the actual pyramid, the burial chambers, the entrance of which was mostly in front of the pyramid and which were under the building, and a small, mostly decorated temple. In contrast to the Egyptian pyramids, the Nubian pyramids were not clad, but rather stepped . In Meroitic times they were no longer made of stone, but of clay bricks. The construction of the pyramids ended around 300 AD, and in the period that followed they returned to building large burial mounds.
Private grave structures
In Meroe and elsewhere, many non-royals were also buried under pyramids. These buildings mostly followed the royal ones in their layout, but they are smaller. In addition to the pyramids, there are also occasional mastabas , i.e. rectangular grave superstructures and burial mounds. However, the majority of the population was buried in simple burials.
temple
Egypt also dominated as a model for building temples. The Kushitic temples usually have a pylon , a courtyard or portico behind it, and a sanctuary, which consists of one or three chapels. This scheme was varied depending on the importance and size of a sanctuary. Building material was mostly sandstone ; other temples are made of mud bricks, with important components being added in stone. Important temples were decorated with reliefs, paintings, statues and altars.
The most important temple in Nubia was the Temple of Amun from Mount Barkal . It was over 150 meters long. Different generations of Napatan rulers built on it. The entrance is marked by a pylon, behind which there is a courtyard with columns. This is followed by another pylon and a portico, followed by a smaller portico with further rooms behind it. The Holy of Holies consists of three adjacent chapels.
The great temple of Amun in Meroe is a bit smaller, but still more than 100 m long. It is the most important sanctuary in the south of the empire. The temple follows a similar plan, but does not have a large portico. It is partly built from burnt mud bricks. Its exact date is uncertain, but more recent research suggests that it was built around 200 to 100 BC. Chr. The name of Natakamani (around 50 AD) who at least restored the building was also found. This temple apparently replaced the temple on Mount Barkal as a national shrine in Meroitic times.
Above all, King Taharqa (approx. 690 BC - 664 BC) built monumental stone temples in important places in Nubia, which almost exactly followed Egyptian models. There was a pylon, followed by an open courtyard, a portico and, in the back of the complex, the Holy of Holies. The walls of the temples were decorated with reliefs and equipped with statues. These temples follow a certain standard in plan and size.
From the time after Taharqa there are hardly any significant new temple buildings, even if the following rulers decorated the old temples with further inscriptions, statues and extensions. This may only be a gap in evidence, as there are numerous blocks with names of kings from Meroe, but the former temples are rarely preserved or can be reconstructed.
Only from the Meroitic period are there renewed examples from different parts of the empire of well-preserved temple buildings. The temples are now mostly much smaller and often only consist of one or two rooms, which are decorated with reliefs outside and inside and also had a pylon. From Naqa comes a larger temple built by Natakamani (around 50 AD) with several rooms and a pylon. It was made of adobe bricks; only the gates and pillars were made of stone and decorated with reliefs.
Especially in the capital Meroe there are some larger temples that have peculiarities that are not known from Egypt. The so-called sun temple (the actual deity worshiped here is unknown) had a pylon. From this one came into a large courtyard, which was flanked by columns. In the middle of the courtyard was a central building. A staircase led to a second pylon and from there to the temple, in the middle of which there was a single shrine about ten meters long .
The temple complex of al-Musawwarat as-sufra also deserves special attention . Various temples can be found here within a complex, which consists of various open courtyards and fencing. Individual parts were richly decorated with colossal figures, including those of elephants .
The Roman kiosk in Naqa combines Nubian and Hellenistic style features. It is a small, open building, the facade of which is structured by columns with Corinthian capitals . The columns are connected by partition walls with large windows. Some of the windows are arched.
Profane architecture
Various palace complexes are known, but they are mostly poorly preserved or only partially excavated, so that it is difficult to get a real picture of them. A palace of Natakamani was found near Mount Barkal. It is 63 m square and stands on a 1.8 m high platform that can be reached by stairs. The best excavated palace is in Wad ban Naqa and, according to an inscription, belonged to the Amanischacheto . The building is square with a side length of 61 m. The main entrance was in the south, from there you came into a hall with six columns and another room of unknown function. The rest of the basement consists of storage rooms. The actual living rooms, however, were on the upper floor and are therefore lost. Architectural elements and inscriptions were found that must have come from there.
An otherwise unknown type of building is the so-called Roman bath in Meroe. It is a building with a large water basin in the middle. The bathroom was richly decorated with sculptures and paintings in the Hellenistic style. The function of the building was long disputed. It has been suggested that it is a water sanctuary, but recent excavations show the Roman character and it may in fact have been a copy of a Roman bath.
Free plastic
At the beginning of Nubian history, free sculpture was also under strong Egyptian influence. From the Napatan period, there are mainly works that depict the king. Among them are a number of colossal statues that were placed in various temples, especially in Lower Nubia. The ruler is standing with one leg forward. The hands are close to the body. The face is turned forward. This corresponds fully to the Egyptian canon. The rulers usually wear a tight cap and a double uräus . This is very typical for the Nubian rulers. Its importance has been controversial so far. The powerful modeling of the body shape appears to be typically Nubian. The nose appears wider and the lips fuller than in comparable Egyptian works. The statues are often made of hard stone and are well polished. Some surfaces are left rough. Gilding, which represented jewelry, was once attached here.
Seated statues are also occupied, but apparently were not nearly as popular as standing figures. Grave sculpture, as it is well documented in Egypt, is the exception. However, there are many ushabti who, apart from the early specimens, are mostly rather undemanding from an artistic point of view. On the other hand, there are only a few examples of royal sculpture from the period after the 6th century BC. The examples preserved seldom show the same mastery of the earlier works. From the time after Aspelta there are only a few examples of royal sculpture. This may be a coincidence of the preservation, but it also corresponds to the evidence in the architecture, which indicates a clear decline in construction work. In addition, the Nubian state may have withdrawn more to the south, which has been less explored.
The Meroitic phase also brought innovations in many areas of sculpture and, from the birth of Christ, often also a complete departure from Egyptian models.
The double statue of a queen from Meroe from around 100 BC. BC follows Egyptian canon, but the proportions are slightly different. The legs seem too short. The faces are only made summarily, but this may be due to the heavy weathering of the sculpture. In addition, it was perhaps once covered with stucco and painted. The eyes are hollow and were certainly once inlaid. Two colossal figures found on Tabo and possibly attributed to Natakamani are still designed according to the Egyptian canon. The ruler wears a rather un-Egyptian robe and on the crown there is a laurel wreath, which was certainly taken from the Hellenistic world. Natakamani also made a number of small sculptures that were found in Naqa and once stood between the legs of figures of rams. The ruler is shown wearing a Nemes headscarf and in the form of a mummy. Here the Egyptian influence is still very clear. A special renaissance of ancient Egyptian traditions can be observed especially under Natakamani.
From around this time there are also some examples of smaller metal sculptures, which are particularly noticeable for their technical mastery. The approx. 10 cm high standing gold statue of a woman probably represents a queen. She wears a long garment, subtly decorated with geometric patterns. There is a sash over the shoulder. The head is lost, but the figure looks surprisingly unnubical because of the slim body shape. But the clothing leaves no doubt about a Nubian origin.
In temple 300 in al-Musawwarat as-sufra there are statues that served as pillars. Pillars are supported by lions and elephants. In front of other temples there were figures of rams and lions, most of which are still based on Egyptian models. In other places there were columns in the form of gigantic Bes figures.
From the so-called Roman bath in Meroe comes a series of sculptures that have completely broken away from the Egyptian models. The mostly half-life-size figures are shown in tunics or naked. A man appears to be lying on a kline , a female figure represents a flute player. The figures appear relatively coarse, the body shapes are full and somewhat awkward. The rich and well-preserved painting is remarkable. Round faience medallions were also found here , showing a head in the Hellenistic style.
The so-called “Venus von Meroe”, which is exhibited in the Egyptian Museum in Munich, is also famous. The statue of a naked woman designed according to the exuberant Meroitic ideal of beauty. A very similar woman statue from a palace in Meroe can be found in the Khartoum National Museum.
From the period after the turn of the century there are a large number of sculptures from Lower Nubia that were found in the graves of local dignitaries. These show the dead as ba , that is, as a bird with a human head. There is hardly anything comparable from Egypt. The sculptures were painted, but are only roughly worked.
Colossal figure presumably representing Natakamani (around 50 AD)
Bafigur
Female figure from the Roman bath
Flat screen
relief
The relief is well documented in all periods of Cushitic history. From the Napatan phase, mainly royal reliefs from temples of the rulers have been preserved. They are represented here in association with various deities. There are also some historical scenes, such as battle reliefs that immortalize the deeds of individual rulers. These scenes in particular are often only preserved in fragments. There are also a number of steles that were set up in the chapels of the pyramids and in temples. In the Meroitic period there were also some private reliefs, which, however, are usually rather undemanding artistically.
The human representations in the reliefs, although there are sunk and raised reliefs as in Egypt, follow Egyptian models. The head is usually shown in profile, eyes and chest frontal. Important figures are shown larger than minor figures. Here, too, as in the sculpture, the figures show full, strong forms and thus differ from the more slender Egyptian models. This is particularly evident when depicting women who, with their powerful shapes and sweeping hips, tend to follow African ideals of beauty. The rich regalia , which in part also goes back to African origins, makes many of these reliefs look strange compared to the Egyptian ones.
Early relief work is often very fine, from the 5th century a certain decay can be observed, especially the few non-royal reliefs that can be assigned to family members of the royal family look downright clumsy. The royal relief, on the other hand, maintains a consistently high standard.
Numerous fully decorated pyramid chapels date mainly from the Meroitic period. The dead person is depicted in front of the judgment of the dead, in front of the sacrificial table or in company with deities. Here you can often find the large figure of the pyramid owner and numerous small figures of servants and other minor characters. Many of these Meroitic reliefs appear a bit rough in terms of craftsmanship, but this is mostly due to the coarse-grained sandstone in which they are carved. The reliefs were once painted too, so they looked very different back then.
The simultaneous temple reliefs often show rows of deities in front of the ruler. The figures are formed according to the Egyptian canon, but are usually much more powerfully modeled. Well-preserved temple reliefs from this period are mainly from Naqa, where the well-known Egyptian scene of slaying the enemy can be found on a temple facade. More recent excavations have found reliefs from Amanichareqerem (approx. 50 AD), which are particularly noticeable due to the delicacy of the modeling. Numerous fragments of historical scenes were also found in the temples of Meroe, which provide good evidence of this genre. The depictions of people and animals are striking because of their liveliness.
Examples of reliefs on steles made from other types of rock are sometimes very finely worked and demonstrate the skills of Nubian artists. Hellenistic influence can also be seen in the reliefs from the Meroitic period. There appear z. B. Deities represented frontally.
painting
There are few surviving examples of Meroitic painting. In Qasr Ibrim there were paintings in a temple that were commissioned by Taharqa. In the tomb of Tanotamun , individual figures are painted life-size on the walls on a white background. The figures are modeled very strongly. Colors were used sparingly. The skin color is mostly red in men and yellow in women, but the clothes remain white. The ruler is shown together with various deities. Similar things can be found in other burial chambers of rulers, but also of queens, but these examples are mostly poorly preserved.
There are some buildings from Meroe with further remains of this art form. The paintings in the so-called Augustus Temple are only preserved today in copies that were made during the excavations. They show prisoners at the feet of a ruler who has not been preserved. Red and brown tones were the preferred colors. The figures are again modeled very strongly. The so-called Roman bath not only contained rich statuary decorations, which were modeled on classical models, but also paintings in a Hellenistic style.
A unique object was found during excavations in the Amun temple of Naqa . It is a barque altar that is brightly painted with Nile deities and papyrus plants. Yellow, red and blue tones were used as colors. Remnants of the wall paintings on the mud brick walls of the temple have also been preserved. After the restoration and reconstruction of the paintings, they will be exhibited in a local museum from 2009.
Handicrafts
Particularly in the field of ceramics there was a remarkable production of high quality goods in the Meroitic period. Vessels are often colorfully painted with geometrical, but also figurative scenes. Research was able to distinguish between different workshops or even artist manuscripts. The pottery found in Meroe is particularly fine and elegant with ancient Egyptian motifs, such as B. signs , decorated.
Although most of the pyramids were robbed early on, numerous valuable luxury objects were still found in Nuri , above all gold work, such as richly decorated cylinders showing a standing goddess equipped with wings. Such cylinders were also found in other Nubian tombs of kings, but their function is unknown.
In the pyramid of the reigning Queen Amanischacheto , a treasure trove of golden jewelry was found, which attests to the high level of goldsmithing. The pieces of jewelry are in Egyptian tradition. Many motifs and scenes seem to be purely Nubian.
Regional differences
The kingdom of Kush extended over a large area, from Lower Nubia to what is now Khartoum . While the official art of the court appears to be uniform, there were strong local traditions in many places, especially on the periphery of the empire, especially in handicrafts. In the private art production of Lower Nubia, a particularly well-researched region, many Hellenistic influences can be identified since the time of Christ's birth, while in the south these can only be observed in the royal environment. In addition to official art, in many places there is also a rather simple production of simple clay figures and simple ceramics that go back to African tradition.
outlook
The after-effects of Cushitic art on other peoples and cultures are difficult to assess. At least Nubian art had a direct influence on Egypt when around 730 BC. This land was conquered. Nubian stylistic features can be clearly felt on Egyptian temple reliefs and in statues. The figures are often reproduced in robust proportions, as in Nubia. However, this influence disappeared with the expulsion of the Nubians from Egypt.
There is ample evidence that Cushitic art continued to exist in the Nubian Middle Ages. Kushitic forms live on for a long time, especially in architectural jewelry and pottery. On the other hand, Cushitic influences on the rest of Africa are difficult to identify. This may be a research gap. On the negative side, it must be said that although there were contacts with the Aksumite Empire , it was completely oriented towards Arabia and therefore hardly incorporated any Kushitic elements. It has often been postulated that certain cultural features such as the use of the headrest in large parts of Africa or the Nok sculpture can be traced back to Cushitic and Egyptian influences. Nubia was often seen here as a mediator of Egyptian cultural assets. The more recent research, however, is more cautious and suspects independent developments or pan-African roots.
Nubian art and culture was not always viewed positively. It has often been prejudiced, mostly dismissing the art of a black African people as inferior or mere copies of other arts. When Giuseppe Ferlini wanted to sell the Amanishakheto's gold treasure, which he had found in Meroe, to museums, the objects were dismissed as fakes. A hundred years later, Georges Posener wrote : There (in Meroe) it developed an independent, increasingly barbaric culture .
Important museums with Nubian works of art
| museum | place | country | comment |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nubian Museum | Aswan | Egypt | Established in 1998 |
| Egyptian Museum | Berlin | Germany | Mainly objects that Richard Lepsius brought to Berlin. |
| Museum of Fine Arts | Boston | United States | Important collection with objects that George Reisner excavated in Nubia |
| Egyptian Museum | Cairo | Egypt | Especially objects from Lower Nubia |
| National Museum of Sudan | Khartoum | Sudan | The most important collection of Nubian art |
| British Museum | London | United Kingdom | British excavation objects |
| Ashmolean Museum | Oxford | United Kingdom | British excavation objects |
See also
literature
There are hardly any works that deal exclusively with Cushitic art; it is often only dealt with incidentally in monographs on Egyptian art. In addition, there are usually separate chapters on art in books on Nubia and some exhibition catalogs, which above all provide a large amount of visual material.
- Rudolf Fischer: The black pharaohs of Kusch and Meroe . Edition Piscator, Feldbrunnen 2010, ISBN 978-3-906090-31-3 .
- Sylvia Hochfield: Africa in antiquity: the arts of ancient Nubia and the Sudan . Ed .: Elizabeth Riefstahl. Brooklyn 1978, ISBN 0-87273-063-8 (or ISBN 0872730646 ).
- Karl-Heinz Priese (Ed.): Egyptian Museum (Museum Island Berlin) . von Zabern, Mainz 1991, ISBN 3-8053-1230-X , p. 256-269 .
- Derek A. Welsby: The Kingdom of Kush . British Museum Press, London 1996, ISBN 0-7141-0986-X , pp. 99-136, 177-189 .
- Derek A. Welsby: Sudan: ancient treasures; an exhibition of recent discoveries from the Sudan National Museum . Ed .: Julie R. Anderson. London 2004, ISBN 0-7141-1960-1 .
- Dietrich Wildung : The pharaohs of the gold country. Ancient kingdoms of Sudan . Reiss-Museum, Mannheim 1998, ISBN 3-8030-3090-0 .
- Dietrich Wildung: Sudan. Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile . Paris / New York 1997, ISBN 2-08-013637-2 .
- Dietrich Wildung, Karla Kroeper: Naga - Royal City of Ancient Sudan . State Museums in Berlin - Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation, Berlin 2006, ISBN 3-88609-558-4 .
Remarks
- ↑ Inscription of the Karimala
- ↑ Aerial photo of the temple today ( Memento from April 30, 2009 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Roman kiosk
- ↑ Figures of Natakamani from Naqa ( Memento from September 28, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
- ^ The Roman Bath ( Memento from September 27, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ flute player
- ↑ Faience medallion
- ^ The Venus of Meroe ( Memento of September 27, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
- ^ Ba statues from Lower Nubia ( Memento from August 21, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Meroitic Queen
- ↑ The Judgment of the Dead
- ↑ Dietrich Wildung: News from the excavations in Naga, Die Herbstkampagne 2005 , In Sokar 12 (2006), pp. 67–69
- ↑ Amanikhabale's Stele
- ↑ Rock drawing of Shoraker with a deity depicted on the front ( Memento from March 12, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Pictures of the paintings ( Memento from May 18, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ ( page no longer available , search in web archives: excerpt from the paintings on flickr.com )
- ↑ PL Shinnie, RJ Bradley: The Murals from the Augustus Temple, Meroe , In: Studies in Ancient Egypt, The Aegean, and the Sudan, Essays in honor of Dows Dunham on the occasion of the 90th birthday, June 1, 1980 , edited by. WK Simpson and WM Davies, Boston 1981, ISBN 0-87846-197-3 , pp. 167-172
- ↑ Dietrich Wildung, Karla Kroeper Naga - Royal City of Ancient Sudan, S. 22
- ↑ William Y. Adams: Progress Report on Nubian Pottery , In: Kush 15 (1967-1968), pp. 1-50; see also: Archive link ( Memento from June 13, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Painted ceramics from Meroe
- ↑ Amanishakheto tomb treasure
- ^ Priese, Ägyptisches Museum , p. 264
- ^ Georges Posener: Lexicon of Egyptian Culture , Wiesbaden (no year), p. 186; see also W. Stevenson (revised by William Kelly Simposn): The Art and Architecture of Ancient Egypt , New York 1981, ISBN 0-14-056114-5 , p. 424, where the Roman kiosk as clumpsy, provincial looking (plump, provincial looking) is described.
- ↑ Website of the museum ( Memento from June 15, 2009 in the Internet Archive )
