Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle in 1948

Refugees from Ramle are escorted, taken on July 1, 1948.

The 1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle (also known as the Lydda Death March ) was the displacement of 50,000 to 70,000 Palestinian Arabs when Israeli troops captured the two cities in July of that year. The acts of war occurred in the context of the Palestine War of 1948 . The two Arab cities of Lydda and Ramle were outside the boundaries of the Israeli state established in the 1947 partition plan and within the area designated for a Palestinian Arab state. As a result, both cities were transformed into areas of the new state of Israel, mainly inhabited by Israelis, which since then are mostly referred to as Lod and Ramla in Israel and in the German-speaking area .

The exodus, supposedly the "greatest displacement during the war," took place at the end of the armistice when fighting resumed. Israel felt compelled to improve its control of the Jerusalem road and the coastal road, which came under pressure from the Jordanian Arab Legion and Egyptian and Palestinian troops. From the Israeli point of view, the capture of the cities, after Benny Morris undertook to panic and cause the civilian population to flee, protected Tel Aviv from threats. The military action thwarted the advance of the Arab Legion by clogging the streets with refugees, causing the Arab Legion to undertake logistical efforts; this weakened their military capabilities and helped demoralize the nearby Arab cities. On July 10th, John Baggot Glubb ("Glubb Pasha" ) ordered the troops of the Arab Legion "to make arrangements ... for a seated war ( phony war )". The next day, Ramle surrendered immediately, but the use of Lydda lasted longer and resulted in an unknown number of deaths. The Palestinian historian Aref al-Aref estimated that 426 Palestinians were killed in Lydda on July 12, 176 of them in the mosque and about 800 other victims in the fighting. The Israeli historian Benny Morris assumes that up to 450 Palestinians and 9-10 Israeli soldiers were killed.

After the cities were captured, Yitzhak Rabin signed an eviction order for the Israel Defense Forces (IDF): “1. The inhabitants of Lydda must be expelled quickly without attention to age. "The inhabitants of Ramle were taken away by bus, while the inhabitants of Lydda were forced into to run in the summer heat to the front line, where the Arab Legion, Jordan's British-led army, sought shelter and support. Some of the refugees died of exhaustion and lack of water during the march, with estimates ranging from a few to 500 deaths.

The number of refugees corresponds to a tenth of all refugees during the so-called “ Nakba ”.

Ilan Pappé and others characterized the incidents as ethnic cleansing . Many Jews who emigrated to Israel between 1948 and 1951 were resettled in the refugees' empty houses, on the one hand because of a lack of housing and on the other hand as a measure to prevent the former residents from reclaiming the houses.

prehistory

Palestine War of 1948

Palestine was under the administration of the British League of Nations Mandate for Palestine between 1917 and 1948 . After 30 years of dispute between Jewish and Arab Palestinians, the United Nations planned on November 29, 1947 to divide Palestine into a Jewish and Arab state . Lydda and Ramle were assigned to the future Arab state.

The proposal was accepted by the Jewish community but rejected by Arab leaders, whereupon civil war broke out between the two groups. The British administration collapsed as the civil war widened. All she could do was evacuate her armed forces and maintain the blockade of air and sea routes. After four and a half months, the Jewish militias had defeated the Arabs and conquered the country's mixed settlements, triggering the Nakba . Over 700,000 Palestinians are said to have fled or been expelled.

Great Britain's mandate ended on May 14, 1948. Israel declared independence . Arab states intervened, sending expeditionary forces from Transjordan , Egypt , Syria and Iraq . However, after six weeks, none of the military forces gained the upper hand.

Fighting resumed after a four-week truce in which Israeli forces were reinforced while the Arabs were under the embargo. The events in Lydda and Ramle took place during this period.

Strategic importance of Lydda and Ramle

Lydda 1932

Lyddas (Arabic: Al-Ludd اَلْلُدّْ) history, reaches at least the time from 5600 to 5250 BC. BC back. Ramle (ar-Ramlah الرملة), three kilometers away, was founded in the 8th century AD. Both cities were strategically important in the history of the region because they are located at the intersection of the most important roads in north-south and east-west directions. Palestine's most important rail hub and the most important airport, today's Ben Gurion Airport , were in Lydda, and Jerusalem's main source of water was 15 kilometers away. Jewish and Arab fighters had fought each other on the streets near the cities since the conflict broke out in December 1947.

The geographer Arnon Golan writes that Palestinian Arabs brought traffic to a standstill near Ramle, so that the Jewish transports had to switch to a route to the south. Israel carried out several ground and air strikes on Ramle and Latrun in May 1948 . Israel's Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion developed a kind of obsession with the two cities, as Benny Morris said. He wrote in his diary that they had to be destroyed. On June 16, during a cabinet meeting, he referred to them as the "two thorns".

Lydda's local Arab administration, subordinate to the Arab High Committee, took over the administration and defense of the city. The reports of the military administration cover military training, building of obstacles and trenches, seizure of vehicles, manufacture of armored vehicles and their equipment with machine guns as well as measures for the procurement of weapons. In April 1948, Lydda had become a center for arms supplies, it also offered opportunities for military training and coordinated security measures for the villages in the surrounding area.

Operation Danny

Israel subsequently launched Operation Danny to secure the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem road and neutralize the threat to the Arab Legion, which was stationed in Ramallah and Latrun and had a small outpost in Lydda. On July 7, the IDF appointed Yigal Allon as chief in chief and Yitzhak Rabin , the future Israeli prime minister from 1974, to command the operation. Both had in the Palmach served an elite fighting force of the Yishuv in British Palestine. The operation was conducted between July 9, 1948, the end of the first armistice, and July 18, the beginning of the second armistice. This period is known by historians as "The 10 Days". Morris writes that the IDF has brought together the largest armed forces in its history, the Yiftach Brigade, the 82nd and 89th Armored Battalions of the Eighth Armored Brigade, three battalions of the Kiryati and Alexandroni Infantry, a total of 6,000 soldiers with 30 artillery weapons.

Lydda's defenses

Lod 1920, in the background you can see St. George's Church

In July 1948, Lydda and Ramle had a combined population of 50,000-70,000 Palestinian Arabs, of whom 20,000 were refugees from Jaffa and elsewhere. Various Palestinian Arab cities had fallen to Jewish or Israeli incursions since April, but Lydda and Ramle had held out. There are different views on the issue of city defense. In January 1948, John Bagot Glubb had visited Palestinian Arab cities and warned them to prepare for the defense, including Lydda and Ramle. The Arab Legion had distributed barbed wire and as many weapons as they could spare. Lydda had an outer defensive line and prepared defenses, an anti-tank ditch and field artillery, as well as a heavily fortified and armed defensive line northeast of downtown Lydda.

Israeli historians Alon Kadish and Avraham Sela write that the National Committee of Arabs - a local emergency administration responsible to the Arab High Committee headed by the Grand Mufti - has taken administrative and military control of Lydda, procured weapons, organized military exercises, and trenches pulled, vehicles commandeered and emergency medical services organized. Up until the Israeli attack, the militia had numbered 1,000 men armed with rifles, as well as machine guns, 15 light and five heavy machine guns, 25 bazookas, six or seven light pieces of field artillery, two or three heavy artillery pieces and armored cars with machine guns . The IDF estimated the number of Arab Legion armed men on site at between 200 and 300 men. In Lydda, several hundred Bedouins were also present as volunteers, plus a considerable number of members of the Arab Legion.

The IDF claims the death toll in Lydda was due to the fighting in the city, not a massacre.

King Abdullah of Jordan (1882–1951) with John Bagot Glubb (1897–1986), British commander of the Arab Legion

According to historian Walid Khalidi, this contradicts the fact that there were only 125 members of the Fifth Infantry Corps in Lydda - the Arab Legion comprised a total of 6,000 men - and that the rest of the defenders consisted of civilians under the direction of a retired sergeant. According to Morris, a number of members of the Arab Legion had arrived in April, including 200-300 Bedouins, and a company-sized force had taken armored cars and other weapons to the old British police station in Lyddas and on the road to Ramle. 150 legionnaires were in the city in June, although the Israelis assumed there were up to 1,500. An AL officer was appointed military commander of the two cities, thus making clear the claim of Abdullah I of Jordan to parts of Palestine, those of the UN had been assigned to an Arab state. Glubb advised him, however, that the Legion's operational area was overstretched and that they could not hold the cities. Abdullah thereupon instructed the Legion to proceed exclusively defensively. Most of the legionaries withdrew from Lydda on the night of July 11th to 12th.

Kadish and Sela argue that the National Committee prevented women and children from leaving the city because their departure could have infected others. In their opinion, it was customary for Arabs in Palestine to leave their homes in the face of an Israeli invasion, partly out of fear of rioting, especially rape, partly because of their reluctance to live under Israeli rule. As for Lydda, the concerns were particular: a few days before the fall of the city, a Jew was found dead in Lydda's train station. He was publicly executed and his body was mutilated by local residents. Hence there was a fear of Jewish retaliation, according to Kadish and Sela.

Fall of the cities

Air raids and Ramla's abandonment

The IDF takes control of Lydda Airport on July 10th.

The Israeli Air Force began bombing the two cities on the night of July 9-10 to persuade civilians to flee. This expectation seemed to be fulfilled in Ramle. At 11:30 am on July 10th, Operation Dani HQ reported to the IDF that there was a general and serious flight from Ramle. In the afternoon, Dani HQ reported one of her brigades to her facilitate the escape of women, children and the elderly, but hold back men of military age. On the same day, the IDF took control of Lydda Airport. The Israeli Air Force dropped leaflets over both cities on July 11, asking residents to surrender. Ramle's community leaders, along with representatives of three prominent Arab families, agreed to surrender, whereupon the Israelis fired mortars on the city and declared a state of siege. The New York Times reported that the capture of the city was considered the culmination of the very brief history of the country of Israel.

Two different perspectives have developed on the subject of ramle under the Jewish occupation . Khalil Wazir , who later joined the PLO and became known as "Abu Jihad", was expelled from the city with his family at the age of 12, where they owned a grocery store. He reports of a fear of a massacre like in Deir Yasin , corpses lying on the street and between the houses, including the corpses of women and children.

In contrast to Wazir's account, Arthur Koestler (1905–1983), who worked for The Times and visited Ramle a few hours after the invasion, said that people were there as usual in the streets. A few hundred young men were arrested in a fence with barbed wire and taken to an internment camp by truck. Women brought these men food and drink, he wrote, and apparently argued with the guards without fear. He claimed that the prevailing feeling was relief at the end of the war.

Moshe Dajan's surprise attack on Lydda

Moshe Dajan (1915–1981) carried out a surprise attack on Lod, in which "everything was fired on that moved" ("blasting at everything that moved.")

On the afternoon of July 11th, Israel's 89th (armored) battalion drove into the city, led by Lt. Col. Moshe Dayan . Anita Shapira depicts that the attack was carried out on Dajan's initiative without coordination with his commander. With a convoy of jeeps, led by an armored car of the Marmon-Herrington brand , which had been taken from the AL the day before, he undertook the attack during the day by driving from east to west through the city and having everything shot at with the machine gun. what was moving, said Morris. He then drove down Lydda-Ramle-Strasse and shot at the military guards until they reached Ramle station.

Kadish and Sela describe that the troops were caught in a violent AL fire at the police stations in Lydda and on the road to Ramle. Dajan writes that the southern entrance to the city was full (“awash with”) Arab fighters and that hand grenades were thrown from all directions. There was a shambles. ("There was a tremendous confusion.").

Gene Currivan's contemporary report for The New York Times confirms the fierce opposition . Dajan's men advanced to the train station, where the wounded were being tended, and returned to Ben Shemen from the police stations under constant enemy fire . Six of his men were killed and 21 injured.

Kenneth Bilby, correspondent for the New York Herald Tribune , was in town and later wrote: “[The convoy] raced into Lydda with rifles, machine pistols and light machine guns firing. He crossed the main streets and fired from full pipes at everything that moved ... the corpses of Arab men, women and even children lay scattered in the streets in the slipstream of this ruthlessly brilliant attack. "(" Were strewn about the streets in the wake of this ruthlessly brilliant charge. "). The attack lasted 47 minutes and, according to the battalion, killed 100-150 Arabs. On the Israeli side there were 6 dead and 21 injured. Kadish and Sela write that the high number of victims was the result of confusion over the location of Dajan's troops. The IDF wore keffiyehs and used an AL armored car as its lead vehicle . Local residents assumed the AL had arrived and were caught off guard by Dajan's soldiers who shot everything as they ran from their homes.

Surrender of the city and a surprising shootout in Lydda

Ruins of Lydda after the Israeli army offensive

Before the official abandonment of the city, people gathered in Lydda and waved white flags. On the evening of July 11th, 300–400 Israeli soldiers entered the city. A short time later, the AL forces withdrew on the road to Ramle. A small number remained in the Lydda Police Station. More Israelis arrived at dawn on July 12th. According to an IDF report, groups of old and young people, women and children lined the streets and showed their submission, carried white flags and on their own initiative entered the prison camps ("detention compounds") that were set up in the mosques and churches. Muslims and Christians separated. The buildings filled up quickly, women and children were released, and several thousand men remained inside, including 4,000 in part of the mosque's building complexes.

The Israeli government set up a committee to deal with the refugees and their property left behind. The committee issued an express ban on destroying, burning or damaging Arab towns and villages, driving the inhabitants out of their villages, residential areas and cities or uprooting the population from their places of residence (“to destroy, burn or demolish Arab towns and villages, to expel the inhabitants of Arab villages, neighborhoods and towns, or to uproot the Arab population from their place of residence ”) without first having received a special and direct order from the Ministry of Defense. Regulations ordered the lockdown of Arab territories to prevent looting and retaliation. It was stipulated that prisoners should be treated as prisoners of war and reported to the Red Cross. Palestinian Arabs who wanted to stay were allowed to do so; confiscation of their property was prohibited.

The city's Arab dignitaries gathered and, after a discussion, decided on Lydda's task. The residents were instructed to put their weapons on the doorstep, where they would be collected by soldiers. However, this did not happen. A curfew was imposed that evening and announced over loudspeakers. A delegation of dignitaries, including the mayor, went to the police station to ask the soldiers there to lay down their arms. However, these refused and fired at the group, killing the mayor and several others. However, the third battalion accepted the city's task. Yoav Gelber assumes that the legionnaires panicked at the police station. They sent wild messages to their HQ in Ramallah: “Don't you have God in your heart? Have you no pity? Bring help! ”When they were about to give up, HQ told them to wait until they were rescued.

On July 12, around 11:30 a.m., two or three AL armored vehicles came into town, led by Lt. Hamdallah al-Abdullah of the Jordanian 1st Brigade. The armored vehicles opened fire on the Israeli soldiers who combed the city, creating the impression of a counterattack by the Jordanians. The exchange of fire led local residents and Arab fighters to believe the Legion had arrived, and those still armed opened fire on the Israelis. Local militiamen resumed fighting and an Israeli patrol was harassed by an angry crowd in the market square. The Israelis suffered many casualties and, seeing the renewed resistance as a breach of the surrender agreement, they quickly put down the resistance, killing many civilians. Kadish and Sela report that, according to Third Battalion commander Moshe Kelman, the Israelis came under heavy fire from thousands of guns from every house, roof or window.

Morris calls this nonsense and believes that only a few dozen of the townspeople took part in the brief exchange of fire.

Representations of a massacre in Lydda

An Israeli soldier in front of the Dahmash Mosque in downtown Lydda

Lydda mosque after Operation Danny, taken in July 1948

Gelber describes the following events as possibly the bloodiest massacre of the war. Shapira said the Israelis had no experience dealing with civilians and therefore panicked. Kelman ordered the troops to shoot at any clearly identifiable target, including any person seen in the streets. He said he had no choice. There was no possibility of immediate reinforcements, the assessment of the main thrust of the enemy was impossible. Israeli soldiers threw grenades into houses they suspected snipers were in. Residents ran out of their homes in a panic and were shot. Yeruham Cohen, an IDF intelligence officer, said 250 people died between 11:30 am and 2:00 pm.

Kadish and Sela, on the other hand, argue that there have been no first-hand testimonies to a massacre, apart from a few questionable Arab sources. The reconstruction of the battle suggests a better, albeit more complicated, explanation of the losses on the Arab side, which also raises serious doubts about the reasons for a massacre in the Al-Omari mosque or refutes it. This view of things has been criticized. John W. Pool, quoting Kadisch and Sela, concluded: “On the morning of July 12, 1948 , Palmach forces in Lydda came under heavy fire from thousands of weapons from every house, roof and window, resulting in heavy casualties . These claims seem to form the basis of many of the arguments put forward in the article. I mean the authors should have provided a lot more information about the exact meaning, factual value, and sources. ”He continues,“ ( Benny Morris ) does not say how many of the town's residents were involved in the fighting, but his Report suggests a far fewer number of Arab shooters than the several thousand (at Kadish and Sela). "

James Bowen is also critical. In his opinion, the UCC website should be viewed with caution: "... it is based on a book by the same authors, published by the Israeli Defense Ministry in 2000."

Aref al-Aref estimates 426 dead, including 179 who, in his opinion, were later killed in one of the mosques in a confusing event that various sources describe as a massacre or a skirmish. Thousands of Muslim male prisoners ( detainees ) were the day before to two of the mosques have been brought, Christian detainees were to church or a nearby Greek Orthodox monastery, which made the Muslims in fear of a massacre. Morris writes that some of them tried to escape, expecting to be killed. In response, the IDF fired grenades and anti-tank missiles into part of the mosque's complex. Kadish and Sela say it was a skirmish that broke out between armed militiamen inside the mosque and Israeli soldiers outside. In response to attacks from the mosque area, Israeli shot an anti-tank shell into it, stormed the area and killed 30 militiamen within the district. In 2013, according to the testimony of Zochrot Yerachmiel Kahanovich, a Palmach fighter who was present during the event, f present on the scene, he himself had shot down an anti-tank missile during the bombing of a mosque with grenades, which carried a tremendous shock wave in the Mosque had been smashed. After checking, he found the walls littered with the remains of people. He also found that anyone who deviated from the escape route had been shot. Dozens died, including unarmed men, women and children, according to Morris. An eyewitness published his memoirs in 1998, in which he stated that he had removed 95 bodies from one of the mosques.

When the shooting was over, bodies were lying in the streets and houses of Lydda and on the road to Ramle. Morris speaks of hundreds. The Red Cross was supposed to investigate the area, but the new Israeli military administration in Ramle issued orders to postpone the visit. July 14th was set as the new date; Dani HQ ordered the Israeli forces to remove the bodies beforehand, but the order does not appear to have been carried out. Dr. Klaus Dreyer from the IDF Medical Corps complained on July 15 that there were still bodies in Lydda and the surrounding area, which posed a health risk and a moral and aesthetic issue. He asked that trucks and Arab residents be mobilized to deal with it.

The exodus

Controversy over alleged eviction orders

Benny Morris writes that David Ben-Gurion and the IDF made largely their own judgment on how to treat Palestinian Arab residents, without the involvement of the cabinet or other ministers. As a result, their politics were haphazard and cumbersome, partly dependent on the location, partly on the religion and ethnicity of the city. The Palestinian Arabs of Western and Lower Galilee, mostly Christians and Druze, were given permission to reside in them, but the largely Muslim cities of Lydda and Ramle were almost completely depopulated. There was no official policy of expelling the Palestinian population, writes Morris, but the idea of ​​the transfer was "in the air" and the leadership understood this.

Yitzhak Rabin (1922–95) signed the eviction order.

During the continuation of the shooting in Lydda, a meeting was held on July 12 at the QG of Operation Dani. Present were Ben-Gurion, Yigael Yadin and Zvi Ayalon, generals of the IDF, and Yisrael Galili , former member of the Haganah , plus Yigal Allon, commander of Dani, and Yitzhak Rabin. Ben-Gurion, Allon and Rabin left the room before the end of the meeting. Rabin presents the following events in two separate reports. In 1977 he was interviewed by Michael Bar-Zohar and said that Allon had asked what should be done with the residents; In response, Ben-Gurion waved his hand and said “ garesh otam ” - “drives them out.” In the manuscript of his memoir, however, he wrote that Ben-Gurion did not speak, but only waved his hand, and he understood it that way that he wanted to say that they should be driven out. The eviction order for Lydda was issued on July 12 at 1:30 p.m. and was signed by Rabin.

In his memoirs Rabin writes: “'Expel' as a term sounds harsh. Psychologically, it was one of the most difficult actions we took. The people of Lydda did not leave the city voluntarily. The use of force and warning shots was inevitable to get residents to march 10 to 15 miles to where they met the Legion. ”(“ The population of Lydda did not leave willingly. There was no way of avoiding the use of force and warning shots in order to make the inhabitants march the 10 to 15 miles to the point where they met up with the legion. ") The Israeli censors deleted this passage from his manuscript, but Peretz Kidron, an Israeli journalist , who translated the memoir into English, shared the censored passage with NYT's David Shipler. Shipler published this deleted text on October 23, 1979.

In an interview with The New York Times , Yigal Allon took a critical look at Rabin's version of events. "With all the high esteem for Rabin during the War of Independence, I was the commander and my knowledge of facts is therefore more accurate," he told Shipler. ("With all my high esteem for Rabin during the war of independence, I was his commander and my knowledge of the facts is therefore more accurate.") I did not ask the late Ben-Gurion for permission to expel the population of Lydda. I did not receive this permission and I did not give any such instructions ("I did not ask the late Ben-Gurion for permission to expel the population of Lydda. I did not receive such permission and did not give such orders.") The residents would have partly because the Legion had told them to leave the city so that they could recapture Lydda at a later date, but partly out of panic.

Even Yoav Gelber criticized Rabin's report. Ben-Gurion was in the habit of clearly expressing his orders, verbally or in writing, and would not have given an order by waving his hand. Furthermore, there is no report of a meeting prior to the invasion that suggests a discussion about an eviction. He attributes the evictions to Allon, who he writes was known for his scorched earth policies . No Palestinians remained in any place where Allon was in command of Israeli troops.

Contrary to traditional historiography, which assumed that Palestinians left their country on the orders of their Arab leaders, some Israeli researchers have questioned this view of things in recent years.

The intervention of Shitrit / Shertok

The cabinet was reportedly unaware of an eviction plan until Bechor Shitrit , Minister for Minorities, appeared in Ramle on July 12 without prior notice. He was shocked to see the troops organizing evictions. He returned to Tel Aviv to speak with Foreign Minister Moshe Shertok , who met with Ben Gurion to agree guidelines for the treatment of residents. Morris, on the other hand, writes that Ben Gurion apparently did not inform Shitrit or Shertok that he himself was the source of the eviction orders. Gelber disagrees with Morris' analysis, arguing that Ben-Gurion's agreement with Shitrit and Shertok is evidence that the eviction was not his intent and not evidence of duplicity, as Morris implies. The agreement was that residents of the city should be told whoever wanted to leave the city could do so, but anyone who stayed was responsible for themselves and would not receive any food rations. Women, children, the elderly and the sick should not be forced to leave the city, and monasteries and churches should not be damaged. Mosques were not mentioned. Ben-Gurion passed the order on to the IDF General Staff, which in turn passed it on to Dani HQ, where he arrived on July 12 at 11:30 p.m., 10 hours after the eviction orders had been issued; Morris sees ambiguity in the instruction that women, children and the sick should not be forced to "go." The word lalechet can mean walking or some other type of transportation. After relaying the order, Shertok believed he had averted the eviction. He was not aware that this was already going on at the time of the meeting in Tel Aviv.

The beginning of the eviction

Thousands of Ramle residents began walking, trucks and buses out of town between July 10 and 12. The IDF used own vehicles and vehicles confiscated from Arabs. According to Morris, by July 13, the ideas of the IDF and those of the residents of Lydda would have matched. In the past three days, the townspeople had suffered air strikes, an invasion, grenade launchers and hundreds of dead residents, had lived under curfew, had been abandoned by the Arab Legion and the able-bodied men rounded up. Morris says the residents have come to the conclusion that life under Israeli rule is intolerable. Spiro Munayyer, an eyewitness, said the most important thing was getting out of town. An agreement was made with the IDF intelligence officer Shmarya Guttman , later known as an archaeologist, that residents would leave the city in exchange for the prisoners' release. Guttman claims to have gone to the mosque himself to tell the men that they are free to reunite with their families. Criers and soldiers ran or drove through the city and directed residents where to gather to move out.

Contrary to the possibility of an amicable act, Morris writes that the troops did not consider the following events as a voluntary departure, but as an act of deportation. While the residents were still in town, the IDF radio had already started calling them refugees ( plitim ). Operation Dani HQ informed the IDF General Staff at noon on July 13th that the troops were busy evicting the inhabitants ("[The troops in Lydda] are busy expelling the inhabitants [ oskim begirush hatoshavim ],") and Simultaneously reported to the headquarters of the 8th and Yiftah Brigades in Kiryati that the enemy resistance in Ramle and Lydda had ended. The eviction of the residents has started. ("The eviction [ pinui ] of the inhabitants ... has begun.")

The march

Exodus from Lydda and Ramle

Lydda's residents began moving out on the morning of July 13th. They had to walk, perhaps because of their previous resistance or because vehicles were missing. They walked 6 or 7 kilometers to Beit Nabala, then another 10-12 to Barfiliya , along dusty roads with temperatures of 30-35 ° C, they carried their children and their belongings in carts pulled by animals or on their backs . Warning shots were occasionally fired after Shmarya Guttman, an IDF soldier. Some were stripped of their valuables on the way by Israeli soldiers at guard posts. Another IDF soldier describes how property and people were gradually abandoned as the refugees tired or collapsed. "At first utensils and furniture were left behind, in the end the bodies of men, women and children lay along the way."

Haj As'ad Hassouneh, described by Saleh Abd al-Jawad as a survivor of the death march , shared his memories in 1996:

The Jews came and shouted among the people: You must go. Where shall we go? Go to Barfilia ... The place where you stood determines whether and which family members and what property you could get; Anything west of you could not be obtained. You had to start walking straight away, heading east ... People were exhausted even before they started the journey or tried to reach any destination. Nobody knew where Barfilia was or the distance to the Jordan ... The people were also fasting because of Ramadan because they were religious. People began to die of thirst. Some women died and their babies were still clinging to the dead. Many of the elders died on the way ... Many buried their dead in corn leaves.

After three days of hiking, the refugees were picked up by the Arab Legion and driven to Ramallah. Reports on the number of deaths vary. Many were elderly and young children who died from heat and exhaustion. Morris speaks of a handful, or perhaps a few dozens ("handful and perhaps dozens.") Glubb noted that no one will ever know how many children have died. Nimr al Khatib estimated the number of deaths based on hearsay at 335. Walid Khalidi gives 350, referring to Aref al-Aref. The evictions blocked the roads to the east. Morris presents the IDF's way of thinking as simple and compelling: they had achieved two main goals and were now out of steam . A counterattack by the Arab Legion had been expected, but the displacement had thwarted it: the streets were congested and the Legion was suddenly responsible for the welfare of an additional tens of thousands.

Looting of the refugees and the cities

George Habasch (1926–2008), later head of the PFLP , was one of the refugees from Lod.

The Sharett-Ben Gurion Guidelines for the IDF specified that there should be no robbery, but numerous sources report widespread looting. The Economist wrote on August 21, 1948:

The Arab refugees were systematically stripped of all their belongings before they were sent on the march to the border. Housewares, curtains, clothes, everything had to be left behind.

“The Arab refugees were systematically stripped of all their belongings before they were sent on their trek to the frontier. Household belongings, stores, clothing, all had to be left behind. "

Aharon Cohen, the director of the Arab department of Mapam, complained after the deportations at Mon Yigal Allon that the troops had been told to take jewelry and money from the inhabitants so that they would arrive penniless at the Arab Legion, which would increase the burden. to take care of them. Allon replied that he was not aware of any order of this kind, but admitted that it was possible.

George Habasch, who later founded the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine , was born in Lydda to a Greek Orthodox family. At the time he was in his second year of training at the medical school in Beirut, but returned to Lydda when he heard that the Israelis had arrived in Jaffa. In the following years he was one of the displaced. Recalling the events of 1948, he said in 1990 that the Israelis had stolen watches, jewelry, gold and wallets from the refugees and that he could testify that one of his neighbors was shot for refusing to be searched. This man's sister, who saw what was happening, died during the march as a result of the shock, exposure and thirst.

When the inhabitants left, the cities began to be plundered. The commander of the Yiftah brigade, Lt. Col. Shmuel "Mula" Cohen wrote that this was where the cruelty of the war culminated. Minorities Minister Bechor Sheetrit said the army had hauled 1,800 truckloads of property from Lydda alone. Dov Shafrir was named Israel's Custodian of Absentee Property , charged with protecting and restoring Palestinian property, but his staff were inexperienced and unable to control the situation. The looting was so extensive that the 3rd Battalion had to be withdrawn from Lydda on the night of July 13-14 and sent to Ben Shemen for one day to hold a reflection conference ( kinus heshbon nefesh). Cohen forced them to surrender their booty, which was then burned on the campfire, but the situation continued when they returned to town. Some were later prosecuted.

There were allegations of rape. Ben-Gurion wrote in his diary entry of July 15, 1948: "The bitter question about acts of robbery and rape in the conquered places has arisen ..." ("The bitter question has arisen regarding acts of robbery and rape [ o'nes ( 'אונס')] in the conquered towns ... ") Amos Kenan, who was platoon leader in the 82nd Regiment of the Israeli Army Brigade that captured Lydda, told The Nation magazine on February 6, 1989:" At night those of us who could not control themselves into the prison building to fuck Arab women. I want to strongly believe, and may even do so, that those who couldn't hold back were doing what they believe Arabs would have done to them if they had won the war. ”Kenan said he had only one wife heard who complained. A court martial was set up, he said, but in court the defendant rubbed the back of his hand over his neck and the woman decided not to continue. The government paid little heed to the allegations. Agriculture Minister Aharon Zisling told the cabinet on July 21: “It is said that there have been rape cases in Ramle. I could forgive acts of rape, but not other acts that seem far more serious to me. When a city is entered and rings are forcibly torn from the fingers and chains from the neck - this is a very serious matter ”.

Stuart Cohen thinks that headquarters control over the Jewish fighters is weak. Only Yigal Allon, commander of the IDF, wrote orders to commanders in writing by default, indicating that violations of the law would be punished. Otherwise one relied, sometimes wrongly, on the intuitive troop decency , as Cohen calls it. Despite the alleged war crimes, he writes, the majority of the IDF behaved correctly and decently ( with decency and civility ). Yitzhak Rabin notes in his memoir that some soldiers refused to participate in the evictions.

Follow-up time

In Ramallah, Amman and elsewhere

John Bagot Glubb , British commander of the Arab Legion , was spat at while driving through the West Bank for handing Lod and Ramla over to the Jews.

Tens of thousands of Palestinians from Lydda and Ramle poured into Ramallah. Most of them had no money, food or water, and were a health hazard, not just for themselves. Ramallah City Council asked King Abdullah to take them away. Some refugees reached Amman, the Gaza Strip, Lebanon and the Upper Galilee. There were angry demonstrations across the area against Abdullah and the Arab Legion for their failure to defend the cities. People spat at Glubb, the British commander of the Arab Legion, as he drove through the West Bank , and the wives and parents of Arab Legion soldiers attempted to break into Abdullah's palace. Alec Kirkbride, British Ambassador to Amman, describe a demonstration in the city on July 18th:

Several thousand Palestinians streamed up the hill to the main entrance of the palace ... they shouted foul language and demanded that the lost cities be retaken immediately ... The king appeared at the top of the stairs of the building; He was a short but dignified figure in white robes and headdresses. He paused for a moment, surveyed the boiling mob in front of him and strode down the steps, pushing his way through the guards' line until he was in the middle of the demonstrators. He went to a conspicuous person who was screaming out loud and hit her on the temple with the palm of his hand with full force. The victim stopped screaming and you could hear the king shouting: Well, you want to fight the Jews too. Very good, there is an army recruiting office behind my house ... go there and register. The rest of you, get the hell out of the hill. ”Most of the crowd went back down the hill.

Morris writes that during a meeting of the Political Committee of the Arab Legion in Amman on December 12-13. July delegates, especially from Syria and Iraq, accused Glubb of serving British or even Jewish interests when he apologized with the shortage of troops and ammunition. Egyptian journalists said he turned Lydda and Ramle over to the Jews. Perie-Gordon, Great Britain's acting minister in Amman, told the State Department that there were suspicions that Glubb had deliberately given up Lydda and Ramle for the sake of the British government to ensure that Transjordan would accept a ceasefire. Abdullah indicated that he wished Glubbs farewell without actually asking him - especially after Iraqi officers claimed the entire Hashemite royal family was in British pay - but London asked him to continue. Britain's popularity reached an all-time low with the Arabs. The UN Security Council called for a ceasefire no later than July 18, and sanctions against violations. The Arabs reacted with indignation: “No justice, no logic, no equal treatment, no understanding, but blind submission to everything Zionist,” replied Al-Hayat (“No justice, no logic, no equity, no understanding, but blind submission to everything that is Zionist ”). Morris, on the other hand, wrote that cooler minds in the Arab world were quietly content to be asked to stop fighting, given Israel's apparent military superiority.

Situation of the refugees

Morris writes that the situation of the 400,000 refugees not only from Lyyda and Ramle is precarious ( dire ), their accommodation was public buildings, abandoned barracks and under trees. Count Folke Bernadotte , the UN mediator in Palestine, visited a refugee camp in Ramallah and said he had never seen a more gruesome picture. Morris says the Arab governments did very little for them and most of the help they got came from the west through the Red Cross and the Quakers . A new UN agency was set up to move the matter forward, the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), founded in 1949, which still today counts many of the refugees and their descendants, currently (2008) four million , are instructed. Bernadotte's mediation efforts resulted in a proposal to divide Palestine between Jordan and Israel and hand Lydda and Ramle over to King Abdullah. It ended on September 17, 1948, when he was murdered by four Israeli riflemen belonging to Lehi , an extremist Zionist group.

Lausanne Conference

The UN convened the Lausanne Conference in 1949 in part to resolve the refugee issue. On May 12, 1949, the conference achieved its only success when all participants signed the protocol of the framework agreements for a comprehensive peace, which included territories, refugees and the city of Jerusalem. Israel agreed in principle to the return of all Palestinian refugees because the Israelis sought membership in the United Nations , which required a solution to the refugee problem. As soon as Israel was allowed to join the UN, it withdrew from the signed protocol because it was completely satisfied with the status quo and saw no need to make any concessions on the border issue or the refugee problem. Foreign Minister Moshe Sharett had hoped for a comprehensive peace settlement in Lausanne, but he could not take on Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion , who considered the ceasefire agreements that had ended the fighting with the Arab countries and a permanent ( permanent ) peace treaty sufficient Importance to measure. On August 3, 1949, the Israeli delegation proposed the repatriation of 100,000 refugees, but not to their previous homes, which had been destroyed or given to Jewish refugees from Europe; Israel would define more precisely where the refugees would be resettled and also determine the economic activities that they would be allowed to do. Part of the 100,000 would be the 25,000 who had already returned illegally, so the real number was 75,000. The US believed this number was too low and wanted 200,000 to 250,000 refugees returned. The Arabs considered the offer from the Israeli side to be less than a symbolic act ("less than token."). When the '100,000 Plan' was announced, the response from Israeli newspapers and political parties was unanimous. Shortly afterwards, the Israelis announced that the offer had been withdrawn.

Repopulation of the cities

Handover from the military administrator of Lod to the first mayor Pesach Lev , recorded in April 1949

On July 14, 1948, the IDF informed Ben-Gurion that not a single Arab resident had remained in Ramla or Lod, as the cities were now called. In fact, a few hundred remained, including members of the municipal utilities who maintained services such as the water supply, skilled workers for the railroad and the airport, as well as old people, the sick and some Christians and others who returned to their homes in the months that followed. In October 1948, the military governor of Ramla-Lod reported that 960 Palestinians were living in Ramla and 1,030 in Lod. The military administration of the two cities ended in April 1949.

Almost 700,000 Jews immigrated from Europe, Asia and Africa between May 1948 and December 1951, doubling the Jewish population; In 1950 Israel passed the Returnees Act, which allowed Jews to become citizens immediately. The immigrants were assigned apartments by Palestinians, partly because of the inevitable shortages of housing, but also as a policy to make it difficult for previous owners to recover them. The immigrants were also able to buy the refugees ' furniture from the Custodian for Absentees' Property . Jewish families were occasionally billeted in houses belonging to Palestinians who were still living in Israel, the so-called “present absentees,” who were considered physically present but legally absent and had no right to reclaim their property. In March 1950, 8,600 Jews and 1,300 Palestinian Arabs lived in Ramla, and 8,400 Jews and 1,000 Palestinians in Lod. Most of the Jews who settled in the cities came from Asia or North Africa.

The Arab workers who were allowed to stay in the cities were assigned to ghettos. The military administrator divided the region into three zones, Ramla, Lod and Rakevet, a British-built settlement in Lod for the railway workers. The Arab areas in them were declared "closed", each closed zone was administered by a committee of three to five members. Many of the city's main workers were Palestinians. The military administrators took care of some of their needs, such as building a school, providing medical aid and assigning 50 dunams to grow vegetables, renovating the interior of the Dahmash mosque, but it appears the refugees felt like prisoners; for example, railroad workers were subjected to a curfew from evening to morning, with regular checks for weapons. One wrote an open letter to Al Youm in March 1949 about 460 Muslims and Christians who were employed by the railroad: “Since the occupation, we continued to work and our salaries have still not been paid to this day. Then our work was taken from us and now we are unemployed. The curfew is still valid… [W] e are not allowed to go to Lod or Ramla, as we are prisoners. No one is allowed to look for a job but with the mediation of the members of the Local Committee ... we are like slaves. I am asking you to cancel the restrictions and to let us live freely in the state of Israel ".

Reception in art

Ismail Shammout (1930-2006) was 19 when he was expelled from Lydda. He created a number of paintings for the March of the Refugees, the best known of which is Where to ..? (1953), which has iconic status among Palestinians. A life-size picture of a man in rags with a walking stick in one hand, a child's wrist in the other, a toddler on his shoulder, a third child crying and alone behind him. In the background you can see a withered tree, in the distance the outline of an Arab city with a minaret. Gannit Ankori writes that the mother who is absent in the picture stands for the lost home, the children are the orphans who have lost their land.

By November 1948, the IDF had been accused of atrocities in some towns and villages, so that David Ben-Gurion had to order an investigation. The Israeli poet Natan Alterman (1910-1970) wrote a poem on these allegations, Al Zot ("On This"), which was published on November 19, 1948 in Davar . It is about a soldier in a jeep who shoots an Arab with a machine gun, which, according to Morris, refers to the events in Lydda. Two days later, Ben-Gurion Alterman asked permission to distribute the poem in the IDF:

Let us then also sing about "delicate incidents"

For which the true name, incidentally, is murder

Let songs be composed about conversations with sympathetic interlocutors

who with collusive chuckles make concessions and grant forgiveness

Four personalities after the exodus

1993: Yitzhak Rabin's historical handshake with Yasser Arafat in the White House

Yigal Allon, head of Operation Dani, who may have ordered the evictions, became deputy prime minister in 1967. He was a member of the War Cabinet during the Six Day War and the architect of the postwar Allon Plan, which proposed ending the occupation of the West Bank. He died in 1980.

Yitzhak Rabin, Allon's operations officer who signed the eviction order, became IDF Chief of Staff during the Six Day War and Prime Minister in 1974 and 1992. He was murdered in 1995 by an Israeli radical who rejected the peace treaty with the PLO.

Khalil al-Wazir, son of the displaced grocer, became a founding member of Fatah , especially its armed arm, Al-Assifa . He organized the guerrilla war of the PLO and the Fatah youth movement, which helped start the first Intifada in 1987. He was killed by an Israeli commando in Tunis in 1988.

George Habasch, the medical student expelled from Lydda, became the leader of one of the most famous militant groups, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine . In September 1970 he planned the hijacking of four airplanes, which brought the concern of the Palestinians into the focus of public interest. The PFLP was also responsible for the 1972 Lod airport massacre , which killed 27 people, and for the hijacking of an Air France flight to Entebbe in 1976, which led to the famous IDF rescue operation. Habasch died of heart failure in Amman in 2008.

Historiography

Israeli historian Anita Shapira argues that the scholars who wrote about the early history of Israel in 1948 censored themselves for viewing the 1948 war as the tragic climax of the Holocaust and World War II.

Benny Morris judges the Israeli historians from the 1950s to the 1970s who wrote what he called Ancient History were less than honest about things that happened in Lyyda and Ramle. Anita Shapira calls them the Palmach generation: historians who fought in the Arab-Israeli war of 1948 and who subsequently worked for the history department of the IDF, where they censored material to which other scholars had no access. For them, Shapira said, the Holocaust and World War II, including the experience of Jewish weakness in the face of persecution, made the struggle for land between Jews and Arabs a matter of life and death. The 1948 war thus became the tragic and heroic culmination of all that had preceded, and the Israeli victory an act of historical justice.

The official history of the IDF was called Toldot Milhemet HaKomemiyut ( History of the War of Independence ) and was published in 1959. She portrayed the events in such a way that the residents of Lydda had violated the terms of their surrender and left for fear of Israeli retribution. The head of the history section, Lt. Col. Netanel Lorch, wrote in The Edge of the Sword (1961) that they had requested safe conduct from the IDF. The American political scientist Ian Lustick writes that Lorch admitted in 1997 that he had given up his post because censorship made it impossible for him to write good quality history. Another employee of the history section, Lt. Col. Elhannan Orren, wrote an extensive history of Operation Dani in 1976 without mentioning evictions.

Arab historians publish reports including Aref al-Areffs Al Nakba, 1947–1952 (1956–1960), Muhammad Nimr al-Khatibs Min Athar al-Nakba (1951), and various writings by Walid Khalidi. Morris tells them there is no use of archive material. Arab governments have been very reluctant to open their archives and the Israeli ones were still closed at this point. The first person in Israel to recognize the Lydda and Ramle evictions, according to Morris, was Yitzhak Rabin in his 1979 memoir, although that part of his manuscript was removed by government censors. The 30 year rule in Israel's Archives Use Act, enacted in 1955, meant that hundreds of thousands of government documents were published in the 1980s and a group of "new historians," as they called themselves, emerged, mostly around the Were born around 1948. They interpreted the history of the war not in the context of (“in terms of”) European politics, the Holocaust and Jewish history, but exclusively in the context of the Middle East. Shapira writes that they focused on the 700,000 Palestinian Arabs who were uprooted by the war, not the 6,000 Jews who died in that war. They judged the behavior of the Jewish state as they would have judged any other. Between 1987 and 1993 four of these historians in particular - Morris himself, Simha Flapan , Ilan Pappé, and Avi Shlaim - three of them educated at Oxford, published a series of books that changed the historiography of the Palestinian exodus. Lustick says that in the time before Morris's publication The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949 , Israel's Jews outside academic circles were largely unaware that the Palestinians had left the country due to displacement and intimidation.

Efraim Karsh in particular criticized these views. He writes that there has been more voluntary escape than Morris and others admit. He recognizes the fact of evictions, particularly in Lydda, but, he argues with Morris, these were the result of decisions made in the heat of the fighting and represent only a small percentage of the total exodus. Karsh argues that the newcomers Historians have turned the history of the birth of the State of Israel on its head and made victims of the Arab aggressors. He regrets that this new account of history is now widely accepted.

Ari Shavit devotes a whole chapter in his book My Promised Land (2013) to displacement and calls the events “our black box ”. In this lies the dark secret of Zionism .

The positions of Karsh and Morris both contradict the positions of Ilan Pappé and Walid Khalidis, despite their differences, who not only speak of widespread evictions but also claim that these were not the result of ad hoc decisions, but rather part of a deliberate strategy than Plan Dalet known and conceived before the declaration of independence. The aim of the strategy was to transfer the Arab population and take over their land, in Pappé's words: to ethnically cleanse the country.

Lod and Ramla today

Ramla 2006

In May 1962, Ramle briefly attracted attention when former SS officer Adolf Eichmann was executed in a city prison. The official population at that time was around 45,000 Jews and 20,000 Arabs; The main source of income was the airport, which was renamed Ben Gurion International Airport in 1973. Beta Israel immigrants from Ethiopia were housed there in the 1990s, which heightened ethnic tensions in the city, as did the economic shortage. Both together made the city a very explosive place, says Arnon Golan, Israeli expert on ethnically mixed cities. In 2010 a three meter high wall was erected to separate the Jewish and Arab residential areas from each other.

The Arab community complained that the local school in the now Arab-majority suburb of Ramat Eshkol was closed instead of being turned into an Arab school. In September 2008 it was reopened as yeshiva , a religious school for Jews. The local administration announced that they would like to make Lod a more Jewish town. In addition to the officially registered Arabs, there are Bedouins in Lod, who make up a fifth of the total population. They came to Lod in the 1980s when they were leaving the Negev , according to Nathan Jeffay. They live in rural shelters that are considered illegal by the Israeli administration and receive no city benefits.

Occasionally the refugees were able to visit their former home. Zochrot , an Israeli group researching former Palestinian cities, visited Lod in 2003 and 2005. They put up signs depicting the story, including a sign on the former ghetto. The visits met with a mixture of interest and hostility. Oudeh Rantisi, a former Ramallah mayor who was evicted from Lydda in 1948, first visited his family's former home in 1967:

When the bus pulled up in front of the house, I saw a little boy playing in the yard. I got out and walked over to him. "How long have you lived in this house?" I asked. "I was born here," he replied. "Me too," I said ...

As the bus drew up in front of the house, I saw a young boy playing in the yard. I got off the bus and went over to him. “How long have you lived in this house?“ I asked. “I was born here,“ he replied. "Me too," I said ...

literature

in order of appearance

• A. Sharon: Ludd . In: Clifford Edmund Bosworth et al. a. (Ed): Encyclopaedia of Islam . New edition, Vol. 5: Khe - Mahi . EJ Brill, Leiden 1986, pp. 798-803.
• Benny Morris: Operation Dani and the Palestinian Exodus from Lydda and Ramle in 1948 . In: Middle East Journal, Volume 40, 1986, pp. 82-109.
• Walid Khalidi: Plan Dalet Revisited. Master Plan for the Conquest of Palestine . In: Journal of Palestine Studies. Volume 18, 1988, No. 1, pp. 4-33.
• Amos Kenan: The Legacy of Lydda: Four Decades of Blood Vengeance . In: The Nation. courtesy link , February 8, 1989, accessed November 26, 2010.
• Benny Morris: Falsifying the Record: A Fresh Look at Zionist Documentation of 1948 . In: Journal of Palestine Studies , Spring 1995, pp. 44-62.
• Walid Khalidi: The fall of Lydda . In: Journal of Palestine Studies. Volume 27, 1998, Issue 4, pp. 80-98.
• Spiro Munayyer: The Fall of Lydda . In: Journal of Palestine Studies , Volume 27, 1998, Issue 4, pp. 80-98.
• Audeh G. Rantisi, Charles Amash: Death March . In: The Link. Americans for Middle East Understanding , Volume 33, 2000, Issue 3 (July / August).
• Ari Shavit : My promised land. Triumph and Tragedy of Israel , Bertelsmann, Munich, 2015; ISBN 9783570102268 . The part of the book relating to the events around Lod is also available in English on the Internet: Ari Shavit: Lydda, 1948. A city, a massacre, and the Middle East today , The New Yorker , October 21, 2013.

Individual evidence

1. ^ Paul Chamberlin: The Global Offensive: The United States, the Palestine Liberation Organization, and the Making of the Post-Cold War Order. Oxford University Press, 2012, ISBN 978-0-19-981139-7 , p. 16. On a visit home in 1948, Habash was caught in the Jewish attack on Lydda and, along with his family, forced to leave the city in the mass expulsion that came to be known as the Lydda Death March On a visit home in 1948, Habash was captured during the Jewish attack on Lydda and, together with his family, forced to leave the city as part of the mass expulsion, known as the Lydda Death March got known.
2. ↑ Richard Holmes, Hew Strachan, Chris Bellamy, Hugh Bicheno (eds.): The Oxford companion to military history. Oxford University Press 2001, ISBN 0-19-866209-2 , p. 64. On 12 July, the Arab inhabitants of the Lydda-Ramle area, amounting to some 70,000, were expelled in what became known as the Lydda Death March. On July 12, up to around 70,000 of the residents of the Lydda and Ramle area were evicted from Lod in what was later known as the death march.
3. ^ Expulsion of the Palestinians — Lydda and Ramleh in 1948 , by Donald Neff
4. ↑ Roza El-Eini: Mandated Landscape: British Imperial Rule in Palestine 1929-1948. Routledge 2006, p. 436.
5. ^ The Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited. Cambridge University Press 2004, p. 425.
6. ↑ Population data from Morris 2004, p. 425. 434 . He writes that before the invasion, Lydda and Ramle had a population of 50,000–70,000 in July 1948, of which 20,000 were refugees from Jaffa and the surrounding area (see p. 425). All had been expelled, with the exception of some old or sick people, as well as some Christians or some who had been held back from work. Others managed to sneak back, so that by mid-October 1948 around 2,000 Palestinians lived in both cities (see p. 434). For the name change cf. Yacobi 2009, p. 29. Yacobi writes that Lod was the biblical name. Palestinians called Lydda al-Ludd. Lydda was the Latin form, cf. Sharon 1983, p. 798. Ramle can also be written Ramleh; Israelis use Ramla, this name should not be confused with Ramallah .
7. ^ Benny Morris: The Palestine Refugee Problem Revisited. Cambridge University Press 2004, p. 4.
8. ^ Benny Morris: The Palestine Refugee Problem Revisited. Cambridge University Press, 2004, p. 425.
9. ↑ The Rabin Memoirs, University of California Press, 1996 p. 383: "Allon and I held a consultation." (Allon and I held a meeting.)
10. ↑ 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War, by Benny Morris
11. ↑ La Question de Palestine. Volume 3, Fayard, 2007, p. 145.
12. ↑ Number of dead in Lod: Morris 2004, p. 426 .: July 11: Six dead and 21 wounded on the Israeli side, and "dozens of Arabs (perhaps as many as 200)". Morris 2004, p. 452 , footnote 68: Third Battalion intelligence puts the figure at 40 Palestinians dead, but perhaps referring only to the numbers they had killed themselves. Morris 2004, p. 428 : July 12: Israeli troops were ordered to shoot at anyone seen on the streets: during that incident, 3-4 Israelis were killed and around a dozen wounded. On the Arab side, 250 dead and many wounded, according to the IDF.
13. ^ Benny Morris: The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947-1949 . Cambridge University Press , Cambridge, United Kingdom 1987, ISBN 0-521-33889-1 .
14. ^ Morris 2004, pp. 432-434.
15. ↑ On the number of refugees who died during the march: Morris 2003, p. 177 .: "a handful, and perhaps dozens, died of dehydration and exhaustion." Morris 2004, p. 433 .: "Quite a few refugees died on the road east," he attributes the number of 335 deaths to Muhammad Nimr al Khatib , who, according to Morris, relied on oral communications. Henry Laurens states in his work La Question de Palestine, Volume 3, Fayard 2007, p. 145 that Aref al-Aref had given the number 500, in addition to the estimated 1300 who died in the fight in Lod or died on the march. ("Le nombre total dee morts se monte à 1 300: 800 lors des combats de la ville, le reste dans l'exode.") Khalidi 1998 ( Memento of the original from 23 July 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and not yet tested. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Pp. 80–98: 350 dead, he cites an estimate by Aref al-Aref. Only Masalha 2003, p. 47. writes of 350 deaths. For the analysis of the IDF and Ben-Gurions on the effects of the conquest of the cities and the expulsions cf. Morris 2004, pp. 433-434. 
16. ^ Ethnic cleansing as a term in Pappé 2006 . On the question of whether there was ethnic cleansing: Morris 2008, p. 408 .: “Although during critical months an atmosphere of ethnic cleansing prevailed, as it was later called, the expulsion never became a general or explicitly declared policy of Zionism. As a result, a sizeable Arab population had remained behind in some parts of the country at the end of the war, particularly in Galilee and in the cities in the heart of the Jewish coastline, Haifa and Jaffa, even though much of the country had been "cleared" of Arabs. "" Although an atmosphere of what would later be called ethnic cleansing prevailed during critical months, transfer never became a general or declared Zionist policy. Thus, by war's end, even though much of the country had been 'cleansed' of Arabs, other parts of the country — notably central Galilee — were left with substantial Muslim Arab populations, and towns in the heart of the Jewish coastal strip, Haifa and Jaffa, were left with an Arab minority. " Spangler 2015, p. 156 .: "During the Nakba, the resettlement of the Palestinians in 1947 (sic!) Rabin was the second supreme commander in Operation Dani, the ethnic cleansing of the Palestinian cities of Lydda and Ramle." "During the Nakba , the 1947 [ sic ] displacement of Palestinians, Rabin had been second in command over Operation Dani, the ethnic cleansing of the Palestinian towns of Lydda and Ramle. " Schwartzwald 2012, p. 63 .: “The facts do not support this claim of ethnic cleansing. Certainly some refugees were forced to flee: 50,000 were evicted from the strategically located cities of Lydda and Ramle ... But these were the exceptions, not the rule, and it had nothing to do with ethnic cleansing. "" The facts do not bear out this contention [ of ethnic cleansing]. To be sure, some refugees were forced to flee: fifty thousand were expelled from the strategically located towns of Lydda and Ramle ... But these were the exceptions, not the rule, and ethnic cleansing had nothing to do with it. " Golani and Manna 2011, p. 107 .: "The expulsion of some 50,000 Palestinians from their homes ... was one of the most visible atrocities as a result of Israel's policy of ethnic cleansing." "The expulsion of some 50,000 Palestinians from their homes ... was one of the most visible atrocities stemming from Israel's policy of ethnic cleansing. "
17. ↑ One tenth of the entire exodus, cf. Morris 1986 , p. 82. On the statement that most of the immigrants in Lydda and Ramle came from Asia and North Africa, cf. Golan 2003 . Regarding the statement that the refugees were housed in empty houses so that they could not be reclaimed, cf. Morris 2008, p. 308 and Yacobi 2009, p. 45.
18. ↑ Politics: When Israel Was Founded . In: ZEIT ONLINE . ( zeit.de [accessed on June 6, 2018]).
19. ↑ Morris 2008, p. 37ff.
20. ↑ On the age of the city of Lydda, cf. Schwartz 1991, p. 39. According to a Christian legend, Lydda was the place of birth and burial place of St. George (approx. 270–303 AD), cf. Sharon 1983, p. 799. Sharon (p. 798) writes that the history of the city may go back to Thutmos III. of Egypt. Cf. also Gordon 1907, p. 3. For Ramle cf. Golan 2003 ( Memento of the original from November 5, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . 
21. ↑ On Golan's article on Ramle as a crucial place, cf. Golan 2003 ( Memento of the original from November 5, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . On the siege of Jerusalem cf. Gelber 2006, p. 145. See Schmidt, June 12, 1948 on the question of the temporary lifting of the state of siege. On the attacks on Ramle and Lydda, cf. Morris 2004, p. 424. On Ben-Gurion and the two thorns cf. Morris 2004, pp. 424-425. and Segev 2000 . Segev writes that immediately after Ben-Gurion's thorn remark in front of the cabinet, 6 lines were removed from the transcript. Segev interprets this as an indication that the evictions were discussed. For the primary source cf. Ben-Gurion " 16 June 1948 ," p. 525. 
22. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g h} Kadish and Sela: Myths and historiography of the 1948 Palestine War revisited: the case of Lydda . In: The Middle East Journal. September 22, 2005.
23. ↑ Morris 2004, pp. 423-424.
24. ↑ Jon and David Kimche: A Clash of Destinies. The Arab-Jewish War and the Founding of the State of Israel, Frederick A. Praeger. Library of Congress number 60-6996, 1960, p. 225 (number of people).
25. ↑ On Operation Dani and the troop contingents cf. Morris 2008, p. 286. For recruitment by Allon and Rabin, cf. Shipler, The New York Times. 23 October 1979 . On the so-called ten days cf. Morris 2008, pp. 273ff.
26. ↑ ^{a b} Morris 2004, p. 425.
27. ^ Morris 2003, p. 118.
28. ↑ ^{a b c d e} Kadish and Sela 2005 .
29. ↑ ^{a b} Walid Khalidi: The Fall of Lydda. (PDF) (No longer available online.) 1998, p. 81 , archived from the original on July 23, 2012 ; Retrieved August 27, 2012 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  
30. ↑ Morris 2008, pp. 286, 289.
    • On the question that the IDF ignored the Legion's defensive stance ("ignored that the Legion was" on a defensive footing, ") see Gelber 2006, p. 158.
31. ↑ ^{a b} Gelber 2006, p. 159.
32. ↑ Morris 1986 , p. 86: The leaflets contained the text: “You have no way of getting help. We intend to conquer the cities. We have no intention of harming people or property. [But] whoever tries to resist us will die. Those who prefer to live have to surrender. "The leaflets said:" You have no chance of receiving help. We intend to conquer the towns. We have no intention of harming persons or property. [But] whoever attempts to oppose us — will die. He who prefers to live must surrender. "
33. ^ The discussion of the formal surrender in a telephone conversation from Dani HQ, July 12, 10, 1948, p. 30, quoted in: Morris 2004, p. 427.
    • For the New York Times report, see Currivan in: The New York Times. July 12, 1948 .
34. ↑ Dimbleby and McCullin 1980, pp. 88-89. He said: The whole village went to church. ... I remember the archbishop standing in front of the church. He was holding a white flag. ... Afterwards we went out, the picture will never be erased from my memory. Corpses were strewn in the street and between the houses and in the side streets. Nobody, not even women and children, were spared when they were on the street. ... He said: "The whole village went to the church. ... I remember the archbishop standing in front of the church. He was holding a white flag. ... Afterwards we came out and the picture will never be erased from my mind. There were bodies scattered on the road and between the houses and the side streets. No one, not even women or children, had been spared if they were out in the street. ... "
35. ↑ Koestler 1949, pp. 270-271. He wrote: "The Arabs were hanging about in the streets much as usual, except for a few hundred youths of military age who have been put into a barbed wire cage and were taken off in lorries to an internment camp. Their veiled mothers and wives were carrying food and water to the cage, arguing with the Jewish sentries and pulling their sleeves, obviously quite unafraid. ... Groups of Arabs came marching down the main street with their arms above their heads, grinning broadly, without any guards, to give themselves up. The one prevailing feeling among all seemed to be that as far as Ramleh was concerned the war was over, and thank God for it. "
36. ↑ ^{a b} Bilby 1950, p. 43.
37. ↑ Shapira 2007, p. 225.
38. ^ Morris 2004, p. 426.
39. ↑ Currivan, The New York Times. July 12, 1948 .
40. ↑ The number of victims differs significantly. Dajan's number is quoted in Kadish and Sela 2005 .
    • There were dozens of dead and wounded, maybe 200, according to Morris 2004, p. 426 and p. 452. Footnote 68, after Kadish, Sela and Golan 2000, p. 36.
    • About 40 dead and a large number wounded, according to the Third Battalion. It is not clear whether forty were meant by the battalion alone, cf. Morris 2004, p. 452. Footnote 68.
    • 6 dead and 21 wounded on the Israeli side according to Morris 2004, p. 426. in Kadish, Sela, and Golan 2000, p. 36.
41. ↑ For the quote from the IDF cf. Morris 2004, p. 427.
    • With regard to the 4,000 in the Great Mosque, cf. Kadish and Sela 2005 .
42. ↑ Gelber 2004, p. 23.
43. ^ Arnon Golan: Lydda and Ramle: From Palestinian-Arab to Israeli Towns, 1948-67 . In: Middle Eastern Studies . tape 39 , no. 4 , October 2003, p. 121-139 , doi : 10.1080 / 00263200412331301817 .
44. ^ Kadish and Sela 2005 .
    • Morris 2004, footnote 78, p. 453.
45. ↑ Gelber 2006, p. 162.
    • Shapira 2007, p. 227.
    • Walid Khalidi: The Fall of Lydda. (PDF) 1998, p. 81 , archived from the original on July 23, 2012 ; Retrieved August 27, 2012 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. calls it an orgy of indiscriminate killing "an orgy of indiscriminate killing."  
    • Kadish and Sela 2005 call it an intense battle where the dividing line between civilians, irregular fighters and the regular army barely existed. "an intense battle where the demarcation between civilians, irregular combatants and regular army units hardly existed."
46. ^ Morris 2004, p. 427.
47. ^ Morris 1986 , p. 87.
48. ↑ John W. Poole, Alon Kadish, Avraham Sela, Yucel Guclu, Yucel :. Communications ". Middle East Journal . Jan. 1, 2006, 60 (3): 620-622. Doi: 10.2307 / 4330311 , JSTOR 4330311 .
49. ^ Myths and Historiography of the 1948 Palestine War Revisited: The Case of Lydda (journal article). Retrieved April 1, 2017 . 
50. ^ Morris 2004, pp. 428, 453, footnote 81 . For more figures on victims, cf. Kadish and Sela 2005 .
51. ↑ p. 93.
52. ↑ Noam Sheizaf: ' Despite efforts to erase it, the Nakba's memory is more present than ever in Israel,' in: +972 magazine, May 15, 2013.
53. ↑ For the discussion of the question in which particular mosque this happened and on the number of 95 corpses cf. Kadish and Sela 2005 , especially footnote 40.
    • Morris 2004, p. 428 .: "Dozens" were shot and killed
    • Morris 2004, p. 453. Footnote 81 refers to Kadish, Sela and Golan's The Conquest: It was a battle in the mosque, not a massacre. He adds, Kadish et al. a. would recognize that among the dead were women, children and unarmed elderly men.
    • An eyewitness, Fayeq Abu Mana, then 20 years old, told an Israeli group in 2003 that he had been involved in the removal of the bodies; see. Zochrot 2003 .
54. ^ Morris 2004, p. 434.
55. ^ Morris 2004, p. 415.
56. ↑ Shavit 2004 .
57. ↑ ^{a b} For the signature cf. Morris 2004, p. 429.
58. ^ ^{A b c d} Shipler in: The New York Times. October 23, 1979 .
59. ^ Benny Morris: Operation Dani and the Palestinian Exodus from Lydda and Ramle in 1948 . In: Middle East Journal . tape 40 , no. 1 , January 1, 1986, p. 82-109 .
60. ^ Morris 2004, p. 429.
    • The orders for Lydda were from Dani HQ to Yiftah Brigade HQ and 8th Brigade HQ, and to Kiryati Brigade at around the same time.
    • "1. The inhabitants of Lydda must be expelled quickly without attention to age. They should be directed towards Beit Nabala. Yiftah [Brigade HQ] must determined the method and inform Dani HQ and 8th Brigade HQ.
    • "2. Implement immediately (Prior 1999, p. 205).
    • The IDF archives holds two nearly identical copies of the expulsion order. According to Morris 2004, p. 454. Footnote 89, Yigal Allon denied in 1979 that there had been such an order, or an expulsion, saying that the order to evacuate the civilian population of Lydda and Ramle came from the Arab Legion.
    • A telegram from Kiryati Brigade HQ to Zvi Aurback, its officer in charge of Ramle, read:
    • 1. In light of the deployment of the 42nd Battalion out of Ramle - you must take [over responsibility] for the defense of the town, the transfer of prisoners [to PoW camps] and the emptying of the town of its inhabitants.
    • 2. You must continue the sorting out of the inhabitants, and send the army-age males to a prisoner of war camp. The old, women and children will be transported by vehicle to al Qubab and will be moved across the lines - [and] from there continue on foot .. "(Kiryati HQ to Aurbach, Tel Aviv District HQ (Mishmar) etc., 14 : 50 a.m., July 13, 1948, Haganah Archive, Tel Aviv), quoted in Morris 2004, p. 429.
61. ^ Shipler, The New York Times. October 25, 1979 .
    • Shapira 2007, p. 232 .: Allon was extraordinarily open during a lecture in 1950, according to Anita Shapira . He said he blamed three factors for the Palestinian exodus.
    • First, they fled because they predicted that the Jews would treat the Arabs exactly as they would have treated the Jews with reversed roles.
    • Second, Arab and British leaders encouraged people to leave their places so that they would not be taken hostage, that way they would be able to resume the fight at another time.
    • Third, there have been cases of displacement, although this was not the norm. In Lydda and Ramle, the Arab Legion continued to fight the Israeli outposts in hopes of reconnecting with their troops in Lydda, he says. When the evictions began, the attacks subsided. Leaving the population of the cities there would have risked the Legion using them to coordinate further attacks. Allon said he didn't regret anything: "War is war".
    • Allon described the situation elsewhere as a provoked exodus ("provoked exodus") instead of an expulsion; see. to Kadish and Sela 2005 .
    • See also Morris 2004, p. 454. Footnote 89.
62. ↑ ^{a b} Gelber 2006, pp. 162–163.
63. ^ Avi Shlaim : The War of the Israeli Historians. Retrieved October 9, 2017 : “The usual Zionist account of the 1948 war is roughly as follows: The conflict between Jews and Israelis in Palestine came to a climax on November 29, 1947 after the UN's declaration of partition was passed ..... Hundreds of thousands of Palestinians fled to neighboring Arab states, mostly following the instructions of their leaders and despite Jewish requests to stay and show that peaceful coexistence was possible .... For many years, the Zionists' standard report on causes, character and The course of the conflict outside the Arab world has hardly been called into question. However, the 40th anniversary of the State of Israel was accompanied by four publications by Israeli scholars that challenged the traditional historiography of the birth of the State of Israel in the first Arab-Israeli war. The conventional Zionist account of the 1948 War goes roughly as follows. The conflict between Jews and Arabs in Palestine came to a head following the passage, on November 29, 1947, of the United Nations partition resolution which called for the establishment of two states, one Jewish and one Arab. . . . [H] undreds of thousands of Palestinians fled to the neighboring Arab states, mainly in response to orders from their leaders and despite Jewish pleas to stay and demonstrate that peaceful co-existence was possible. . . . For many years the standard Zionist account of the causes, character, and course of the Arab-Israeli conflict remained largely unchallenged outside the Arab world. The fortieth anniversary of the establishment of the State of Israel, however, was accompanied by the publication of four books by Israeli scholars who challenged the traditional historiography of the birth of the State of Israel and the first Arab-Israeli war. . . " 
64. ^ Morris 2004, p. 430.
    • See also Morris 1986 , p. 92.
    • Gelber 2006, pp. 161-162. says the residents were already on their way outside when this order was issued.
65. ^ Morris 2004, p. 429.
    • On the subject made available to the residents of Ramle Busse by the Kiryati Brigade, see Morris 1988 .
66. ^ Morris 2004, p. 431.
67. ↑ Morris 1986 , pp. 93-4. Morris finds Guttman's account subjective and impressionistic (p. 94, footnote 39). Guttman later wrote about Lydda under the pseudonym "Avi-Yiftah".
68. ^ Morris 2004, p. 432.
69. ^ Morris 2004, p. 455. Footnote 96.
70. ↑ Morris 2004, p. 432 .: At 6:15 pm on the same day the Dani HQ asked the Yiftah Brigade: (Has the removal of the population of Lydda been completed?) “Has the removal of the population [ hotza'at ha 'ochlosiah ] of Lydda been completed? "
71. ↑ Morris 1986 , pp. 93-94; see p. 97 on temperature
72. ↑ ^{a b c d e f} Morris 2004, pp. 433-434.
73. ^ Saleh Abd al-Jawad : Zionist Massacres: the Creation of the Palestinian Refugee Problem in the 1948 War. In: Eyal Benvenisti , Chaim Gans, Sari Hanafi: Israel and the Palestinian Refugees . Springer, 2007, ISBN 978-3-540-68160-1 , pp. 70-71. "The Jews came and they called among the people: 'You must go.' 'Where shall we go?' 'Go to Barfilia.' ... the spot you were standing on determined what if any family or possession you could get; any to the west of you could not be retrieved. You had to immediately begin walking and it had to be to the east. ... The people were fatigued even before they began their journey or could attempt to reach any destination. No one knew where Barfilia was or its distance from Jordan. ... The people were also fasting due to Ramadan because they were people of serious belief. There was no water. People began to die of thirst. Some women died and their babies nursed from their dead bodies. Many of the elderly died on the way. ... Many buried their dead in the leaves of corn. "
74. ^ Morris 2008, p. 291.
75. ^ Morris 2003, p. 177.
76. ↑ Khalidi, pp. 80-98.
77. ↑ Pappé 2006, p. 168.
78. ^ Morris 1986 , p. 97.
79. ↑ Brandabur 1990 ( Memento of the original from July 15, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . Habash said: “The Israelis were rounding everyone up and searching us. People were driven from every quarter and subjected to complete and rough body searches. You can't imagine the savagery with which people were treated. Everything was taken — watches, jewelery, wedding rings, wallets, gold. One young neighbor of ours, a man in his late twenties, not more, Amin Hanhan, had secreted some money in his shirt to care for his family on the journey. The soldier who searched him demanded that he surrender the money and he resisted. He was shot dead in front of us. One of his sisters, a young married woman, also a neighbor of our family, was present: she saw her brother shot dead before her eyes. She was so shocked that, as we made our way toward Birzeit, she died of shock, exposure, and lack of water on the way. " 
80. ^ Morris 1986 , p. 88.
81. ↑ Segev 1986, pp. 69-71.
82. ^ Morris 2004, p. 454. Footnote 86.
83. ↑ Ben-Gurion, Volume 2, p. 589.
84. ↑ ^{a b} Kenan 1989 ; courtesy link .
85. ↑ Morris 1986, p. 105. “It has been said that there were cases of rape in Ramle. I could forgive acts of rape but I won't forgive other deeds, which appear to me much graver. When a town is entered and rings are forcibly removed from fingers and jewelery from necks — that is a very grave matter. "
    • See also Segev 1986, pp. 71-72.
    • On the question of Ben-Gurion's considerations and concerns, cf. Tal 2004, p. 311.
86. ^ Cohen 2008, p. 139.
87. ^ Shipler, The New York Times. 23 October 1979 . Rabin wrote: “Great suffering was inflicted upon the men taking part in the eviction action. Soldiers of the Yiftach brigade included youth movement graduates, who had been inculcated with values ​​such as international fraternity and humaneness. The eviction action went beyond the concepts they were used to. There were some fellows who refused to take part in the expulsion action. Prolonged propaganda activities were required after the action, to remove the bitterness of these youth movement groups, and explain why we were obliged to undertake such harsh and cruel action. "
88. ^ IDF Intelligence Service / Arab Department, July 21, 1948, cited in Morris 2008, p. 291.
89. ↑ Morris 2008, pp. 290-291.
90. ↑ Kirkbride 1976, p. 48, cited in Morris 2008, p. 291. A couple of thousand Palestinian men swept up the hill toward the main [palace] entrance ... screaming abuse and demanding that the lost towns should be reconquered at once ... The King appeared at the top of the main steps of the building; he was a short, dignified figure wearing white robes and headdress. He paused for a moment, surveying the seething mob before, [then walked] down the steps to push his way through the line of guardsmen into the thick of the demonstrators. He went up to a prominent individual, who was shouting at the top of his voice, and dealt him a violent blow to the side of the head with the flat of his hand. The recipient of the blow stopped yelling… the King could be heard roaring: so, you want to fight the Jews, do you? Very well, there is a recruiting office for the army at the back of my house ... go there and enlist. The rest of you, get the hell down the hillside! “Most of the crowd got the hell down the hillside.
91. ↑ Morris 2008, pp. 291-292.
    • On Perie-Gordon cf. Abu Nowar 2002, p. 208.
92. ^ Morris 2008, p. 295.
93. ↑ ^{a b} Morris 2008, p. 309ff.
94. ↑ Sayigh 2007, p. 84 ..... the United Nations mediator in Palestine, visited a refugee camp in Ramallah and said he had never seen a more ghastly sight
95. ^ "Bernadotte Murder Stuns Whole World" , Ottawa Citizen. September 18, 1948.
96. ^ Ilan Pappe: The Making of the Arab – Israeli Conflict 1947–1951 . IB Tauris , 1992, ISBN 1-85043-819-6 . Chapter 9: The Lausanne Conference.
97. ↑ Michael Palumbo: The Palestinian Catastrophe . Quartet Books , 1987, ISBN 0-7043-0099-0 , pp. 184-189 .
98. ↑ On "not one inhabitant," and the hundreds who remained cf. Morris 2004, p. 434.
    • For the figures from October 1948 cf. Morris 2004, p. 455. Footnote 110.
    • On the end of the military administration, cf. Yacobi 2009, p. 39.
99. ↑ ^{a b} Yacobi 2009, p. 42.
100. ^ Morris 2008, p. 308, for a general discussion of the issue.
     • Yacobi 2009, p. 45. for specific mention of this in relation to Lydda.
101. ↑ For the numbers and the origin cf. Golan 2003 .
     • See also Yacobi 2009, p. 39.
102. ↑ Yacobi 2009, p. 33.
103. ↑ Yacobi 2009, p. 34.
104. ↑ Yacobi 2009, pp. 35-36.
105. ↑ Ankori 2006, pp. 48–50.
     • For the picture: "Where to ..?" , shammout.com. Retrieved November 26, 2010.
106. ↑ On the atrocities in general, cf. Morris 2004, p. 486ff. ; see. P. 489.
     • Morris writes that the poem is about Lydda Morris 2004, p. 426. 489 (p. 489 he writes that it is apparently about Lydda; cf. also Morris 2008, p. 473, footnote 85.)
107. ↑ Al Zot in Hebrew , www.education.gov.il, accessed December 1, 2010.
108. ^ Jewish Agency for Israel. "Allon, Yigal (1918-1980)" . Retrieved September 25, 2009.
109. ↑ As'ad Abu Khalil 2005, p. 529ff.
110. ↑ Andrews and Kifner, The New York Times. January 27, 2008 .
     • Habash spoke to Robert Fisk in 1993 about Lydda: “I will never rest until I can go back. The house is still there and a Jewish family lives in it now. Some of my friends tried to find it and some relatives actually went there and sent me a message that the trees are still standing in the garden, just as they were in 1948.… It's my right to go directly to my house and live there. “See Fisk 1993 .
111. ↑ ^{a b} Shapira 1995 , pp. 12-13.
112. ↑ ^{a b c} Morris 1988 .
113. ↑ On the book by Lorch cf. Morris 1988 .
     • On Lustick cf. Lustick 1997 ( Memento of the original from June 12, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . 
114. ^ Morris 2004, pp. 1-2.
115. ↑ Shapira 1995 , pp. 9, 16-17.
116. ↑ Morris 1988 and Lustick 1997 ( Memento of the original from June 12, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Pp. 157-158.  
     • Simha Flapan (1911–1987) is the exception to the rule that the New Historians were born around 1948.
     • Basic texts are:
     • Simha Flapan's The Birth of Israel (1987)
     • Benny Morris ' The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947-1949 (1987), 1948 and After: Israel and the Palestinians (1990) and Israel's Border Wars, 1949-1956 (1993)
     • Ilan Pappés Britain and the Arab-Israeli Conflict: 1948–1951 (1988) and The Making of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1947–1951 (1992)
     • Avi Shlaim's Collusion across the Jordan (1988) and The Politics of Partition (1990)
     • Other authors who devote themselves to New History are, according to Lustick (p. 157), Uri Bar-Joseph, Mordechai Bar-On, Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi, Motti Golani, Uri Milstein , and Tom Segev .
     • For the focus on the 700,000 uprooted cf. Shapira 1995 , p. 13.
117. ↑ Karsh 2003, pp. 160-161.
     • Kadish and Sela 2005 .
118. ↑ Karsh 1999 .
119. ^ Dwight Garner: 'Son of Israel, Caught in the Middle,' New York Times November 20, 2013.
120. ↑ Khalidi 1961 , Khalidi 1988 ( Memento of the original from January 28, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. and Pappé 2006 . 
121. ↑ On the population: Population figures , Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved November 26, 2010.
     • For Eichmann cf. Weitz 2007 .
122. ↑ ^{a b} Pulled apart. In: The Economist. October 14, 2010.
123. ^ Nathan Jeffay: Israel's Mixed Cities on Edge After Riots In: The Forward . October 23, 2008.
124. ^ Jeffay 2008 .
125. ^ "Remembering Al-Lydd 2005" , "Tour and signposting in Al-Lydd (Lod), 2003" .
     • See also Testimonies on the Nakba of Lod .
     • Page no longer available , search in web archives: Booklet about Lydda in Arabic and Hebrew, Zochrot.
     • Page no longer available , search in web archives: Booklet about Ramla , also in Arabic and Hebrew, Zochrot, accessed on November 28, 2010.
126. ↑ Rantisi and Amash 2000 ( Memento of the original from September 17, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. .