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Prajapati with similar iconographical features associated with Brahma, a sculpture from Tamil Nadu

Prajapati (Sanskrit: प्रजापति, lit. 'Lord of creation', IAST: Prajāpati) is a Vedic deity of Hinduism.^[1]^[2]^[3]

In later literature, Prajapati is identified with the creator-god Brahma, but the term also connotes many different gods depending on the Hindu scriptures, ranging from being the creator god Brahma to being the same as the following: Vishvakarma, Agni, Indra, Daksha, and many others,^[1] reflecting the diverse Hindu cosmology.^[2] In classical and medieval era literature, Prajapati is equated to the metaphysical concept called Brahman as Prajapati-Brahman (Svayambhu Brahman), or alternatively Brahman is described as one who existed before Prajapati.^[4]^[5]

Etymology

Prajapati (Sanskrit: प्रजापति) is a compound of "praja" (creation, procreative powers) and "pati" (lord, master).^[6] The term means "lord of creatures",^[1]^[2] or "lord of all born beings".^[7] In the later Vedic texts, Prajapati is a distinct Vedic deity, but whose significance diminishes.^[2] Later, the term is synonymous with other gods, particularly Brahma.^[1]^[3] Still later, the term evolves to mean any divine, semi-divine or human sages who create something new.^[1]^[2]^[8]

Origins

The origins of Prajapati are unclear. He appears late in the Vedic layer of texts, and the hymns that mention him provide different cosmological theories in different chapters.^[3] He is missing from the Samhita layer of Vedic literature, conceived in the Brahmana layer, states Jan Gonda.^[9] Prajapati is younger than Savitr, and the word was originally an epithet for the sun.^[10] His profile gradually rises in the Vedas, peaking within the Brahmanas.^[9] Scholars such as Renou, Keith and Bhattacharji posit Prajapati originated as an abstract or semi-abstract deity in the later Vedic milieu as speculations evolved from the archaic to more learned speculations.^[10]

Similarity with other Indo-European deities

A possible connection between Prajapati (and related figures in Hindu mythology) and Prōtogonos, (Ancient Greek: Πρωτογόνος, literally "first-born") of the Greek Orphic tradition has been proposed:^[11]^[12]

Protogonos is the Orphic mythology equivalent of the Vedic Prajapati in several ways: he is the first god born from a cosmic egg, he is the creator of the universe, and in the figure of Dionysus— a direct descendant of Protogonos — worshippers participate in his death, and rebirth
— Kate Alsobrook, The Beginning of Time: Vedic and Orphic Theogonies and Poetics^[12]

According to Robert Graves, the name of /PRA-JĀ[N]-pati/ ('progeny-potentate') is etymologically equivalent to that of the oracular god Phanes at Colophon (according to Makrobios^[13]), namely /prōtogonos/.^{[citation needed]} The cosmic egg concept linked to Prajapati and Protogonos is common in many parts of the world, states David Leeming, which appears in later Orphic cult in Greece.^[14]

Texts

Prajapati is described in many ways and inconsistently in Hindu texts, both in the Vedas and in the post-Vedic texts. These range from being the creator god Brahma to being same as one of the following: Agni, Indra, Vishvakarma, Daksha and many others.^[1]^[15]

Vedas

His role varies within the Vedic texts such as being one who created heaven and earth, all of water and beings, the chief, the father of gods, the creator of devas and asuras the cosmic egg and the Purusha.^[2]^[7] His role peaked in the Brahmanas layer of Vedic texts, then declined to being a group of helpers in the creation process.^[2] In some Brahmana texts, his role remains ambiguous since he co-creates with the creator goddess Vāc.^[16]

In the Rigveda, Prajapati appears as an epithet for Savitr, Soma, Agni and Indra, who are all praised as equal, same and lord of creatures.^[17] Elsewhere, in hymn 10.121 of the Rigveda, is described Hiranyagarbha (golden embryo) that was born from the waters containing everything, which produced Prajapati. It then created manas (mind), kama (desire) and tapas (heat). However this Prajapati is a metaphor, one of many Hindu cosmology theories, and there is no supreme deity in the Rigveda.^[18]^[19]^[20] One of the striking features about the Hindu Prajapati myths, states Jan Gonda, is the idea that work of creation is a gradual process, completed in stages of trial and improvement.^[21]

In the Shatapatha Brahmana, embedded inside the Yajurveda, Prajapati emanated from Purusha (cosmic spirit) and Prajapati co-creates the world with Vāc^[22] It also includes the "golden cosmic egg" mythology, wherein Prajapati is stated to be born from a golden egg in primeval sea after the egg was incubated for a year. His sounds became the sky, the earth and the seasons. When he inhaled, he created the devas, fire, and light. When he exhaled, he created the asuras, and darkness. Then, together with Vāc , he created all beings and time.^[23] In Chapter 10 of the Shatapatha Brahmana, as well as chapter 13 of Pancavimsa Brahmana, is presented another myth wherein he, Prajapati is a mother, who becomes self-pregnant with all living creatures self-generated, then Mrtyu seizes these beings within his/her womb, but because these beings are part of the eternal Prajapati they desire to live long like him.^[24]^[25]

The Aitareya Brahmana offers a different myth, wherein Prajapati, having created the gods, turns into a stag and approaches his daughterUshas who was in the form of a doe, to produce other earthly beings. The gods were horrified by the incest, and joined forces to produce the angry destructive Rudra to punish Prajapati for "doing what is not done". Prajapati was killed by Rudra.^[23] The Kausitaki Brahmana tells another myth, wherein Prajapati created Agni, Surya, Chandra, Vayu, Ushas and all deities released their energies and created the universe^[23]

In section 2.266 of Jaiminiya Brahmana, Prajapati is presented as a spiritual teacher. His student Varuna lives with him for 100 years, studying the art and duties of being the "father-like king of gods".^[26]^[27]

Upanishads

Prajapati appears in early Upanishads, among the most influential texts in Hinduism.^[28] He is described in the Upanishads in diverse ways. For example, in different Upanishads, he is presented as the personification of creative power after Brahman,^[29] the same as the wandering eternal soul,^[30] as symbolism for unmanifest obscure first born,^[31] as manifest procreative sexual powers,^[32] the knower particularly of Atman (soul, self),^[33] and a spiritual teacher that is within each person.^[34]^[35] The Chandogya Upanishad, as an illustration, presents him as follows:^[36]

The self (atman) that is free from evils, free from old age and death, free from sorrow, free from hunger and thirst; the self whose desires and intentions are real – that is the self that you should try to discover, that is the self that you should seek to perceive. When someone discovers that self and perceives it, he obtains all the worlds, and all his desires are fulfilled, so said Prajapati.

— Chandogya Upanishad 8.7.1, Translator: Patrick Olivelle^[36]

In Chandogya Upanishad 1.2.1, Prajapati appears as the creator of all devas and asuras. "The gods and goddesses and the demons are both children of Prajapati, yet they fought among themselves." (Sanskrit: देवासुरा ह वै यत्र संयेतिरे उभये प्राजापत्यास्तद्ध, IAST: devāsurā ha vai yatra saṃyetire ubhaye prājāpatyāstaddha).^[37]

Post-Vedic texts

In the Mahabharata, Brahma is declared to be a Prajapati who creates many males and females, and imbues them with desire and anger, the former to drive them into reproducing themselves and the latter to prevent them from being like gods.^[23] Other chapters of the epics and Puranas declare Vishnu or Shiva to be Prajapati.^[17]

The Bhagavad Gita uses the epithet Prajapati to describe Krishna, along with many other epithets.^[38]

The Grhyasutras include Prajapati as among the deities invoked during wedding ceremonies and prayed to for blessings of prosperous progeny, and harmony between husband and wife.^[39]

Prajapati is identified with the personifications of Time, Fire, the Sun, etc. He is also identified with various mythical progenitors, especially (Manusmriti 1.34) the ten lords created beings first created by Brahma: Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Vasishtha, Daksha, Bhrigu and Narada.^[40]

In the Puranas, there are groups of Prajapatis called Prajapatayah who were rishis (sages) from whom all of the world is created, followed by a Prajapatis list that widely varies in number and name between different texts.^[1]^[2] According to George Williams, the inconsistent, varying and evolving Prajapati concept in Hindu mythology reflects the diverse Hindu cosmology.^[2]

The Mahabharata and the genre of Puranas call various gods and sages as Prajapati. Some illustrations, states Roshen Dalal, include Agni, Bharata, Shashabindu, Shukra, Havirdhaman, Indra, Kapila, Kshupa, Prithu, Chandra, Svishtakrita, Tvashtr, Vishvakarma and Virana.^[1]

In the medieval era texts of Hinduism, Prajapati refers to legendary agents of creation, working as gods or sages, who appear in every cycle of creation-maintenance-destruction (manvantaras). Their numbers vary between seven, ten, sixteen or twenty-one.^[1]

A list of twenty one includes found in the Mahabharata includes:^[1]^[2]

Rudra
Manu
Daksha
Bhrigu
Dharma
Tapa
Yama
Marici
Angiras
Atri
Pulastya
Pulaha
Kratu
Vasishtha
Parameshti
Surya
Chandra
Kardama
Krodha
Vikrita.

A list of sixteen found in the Ramayana includes:^[1]

A list of ten in Hindu scriptures includes:^[1]

Their creative role varies. Pulaha, for example, is the Mānasaputra of Brahma and Sarasvati is a great rishi. As one of the Prajapatis, he creates animals and plants.^[41]

Balinese Hinduism

Hindu temples in Bali Indonesia called Pura Prajapati, also called Pura Mrajapati, are common. They are most associated with funeral rituals and the Ngaben (cremation) ceremony for the dead.^[42]^[43]

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Roshen Dalal (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin. p. 311. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j George M. Williams (2008). Handbook of Hindu Mythology. Oxford University Press. pp. 234–235. ISBN 978-0-19-533261-2.
^ ^a ^b ^c James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 518–519. ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4.
^ Sukumari Bhattacharji (2007). The Indian Theogony. Cambridge University Press. pp. 322–323, 337, 338, 341–342.
^ "Prajapati, Prajāpati, Prajāpatī, Praja-pati: 30 definitions". 28 September 2010.
^ Jan Gonda (1982), The Popular Prajāpati Archived 15 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine, History of Religions, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Nov., 1982), University of Chicago Press, pp. 137-141
^ ^a ^b Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase Publishing. p. 332. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5.
^ James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 169, 518–519. ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4.
^ ^a ^b Jan Gonda (1986). Prajāpatiʼs rise to higher rank. BRILL Academic. pp. 2–5. ISBN 90-04-07734-0.
^ ^a ^b Jan Gonda (1982), The Popular Prajāpati Archived 15 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine, History of Religions, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Nov., 1982), University of Chicago Press, pp. 129-130
^ Martin West, Early Greek Philosophy and the Orient. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971: 28-34
^ ^a ^b Kate Alsobrook (2008), "The Beginning of Time: Vedic and Orphic Theogonies and Poetics". M.A. Thesis, Reviewers: James Sickinger, Kathleen Erndl, John Marincola and Svetla Slaveva-Griffin, Florida State University, pages 20, 1-5, 24-25, 40-44
^ Robert Graves : The Greek Myths. 1955. vol. 1, p. 31, sec. 2.2
^ David Adams Leeming (2010). Creation Myths of the World: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 313–314. ISBN 978-1-59884-174-9.
^ Sukumari Bhattacharji (2007). The Indian Theogony. Cambridge University Press. pp. 322–330.
^ David Kinsley (1988). Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition. University of California Press. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-0-520-90883-3.
^ ^a ^b Sukumari Bhattacharji (2007). The Indian Theogony. Cambridge University Press. pp. 322–323.
^ Gavin D. Flood (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 45–46. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0.
^ Henry White Wallis (1887). The Cosmology of the Ṛigveda: An Essay. Williams and Norgate. pp. 61–73, 117.
^ Laurie L. Patton (2005). Bringing the Gods to Mind: Mantra and Ritual in Early Indian Sacrifice. University of California Press. pp. 113, 216. ISBN 978-0-520-93088-9.
^ Jan Gonda (1986). Prajāpatiʼs rise to higher rank. BRILL Academic. pp. 20–21. ISBN 90-04-07734-0.
^ Annette Wilke; Oliver Moebus (2011). Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 414–416. ISBN 978-3-11-024003-0.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d David Adams Leeming (2010). Creation Myths of the World: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 144–146. ISBN 978-1-59884-174-9.
^ Jan Gonda (1986). Prajāpatiʼs rise to higher rank. BRILL Academic. pp. 5, 14–16. ISBN 90-04-07734-0.
^ Sukumari Bhattacharji (2007). The Indian Theogony. Cambridge University Press. pp. 324–325.
^ Jan Gonda (1986). Prajāpatiʼs rise to higher rank. BRILL Academic. pp. 17–18. ISBN 90-04-07734-0.
^ Sukumari Bhattacharji (2007). The Indian Theogony. Cambridge University Press. pp. 326–327.
^ Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195352429, pages 3, 279-281; Quote: "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".
^ Paul Deussen (1980). Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 19–21, 205, 240, 350, 510, 544. ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4.
^ Paul Deussen (1980). Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 495. ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4.
^ Paul Deussen (1980). Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 85, 96–97, 252. ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4.
^ Paul Deussen (1980). Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 53–56, 471, 534, 540. ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4.
^ Paul Deussen (1980). Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 371. ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4.
^ Paul Deussen (1980). Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 21, 106, 198–205, 263, 508, 544. ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4.
^ Klaus G. Witz (1998). The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 115, 145–153, 363–365. ISBN 978-81-208-1573-5.
^ ^a ^b The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation. Oxford University Press. 1998. pp. 279–281. ISBN 978-0-19-535242-9.
^ www.wisdomlib.org (4 January 2019). "Chandogya Upanishad, Verse 1.2.1 (English and Sanskrit)". www.wisdomlib.org. Retrieved 16 January 2023.
^ Winthrop Sargeant (2010). Christopher Key Chapple (ed.). The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition. State University of New York Press. pp. 37, 167, 491 (verse 11.39). ISBN 978-1-4384-2840-6.
^ Jan Gonda (1982), The Popular Prajāpati Archived 15 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine, History of Religions, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Nov., 1982), University of Chicago Press, pp. 131-132
^ Wilkins, W.J. (2003). Hindu Mythology. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld (P) Limited. p. 369. ISBN 81-246-0234-4.
^ Roshen Dalal (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin. p. 316. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.
^ David J. Stuart-Fox (2002). Pura Besakih: Temple, Religion and Society in Bali. KITLV. pp. 92–94, 207–209. ISBN 978-90-6718-146-4.
^ Between Harmony and Discrimination: Negotiating Religious Identities within Majority-Minority Relationships in Bali and Lombok. BRILL. 2014. pp. 264–266. ISBN 978-90-04-27149-4.

[Dalal2010p311-1] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Roshen Dalal (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin. p. 311. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.

[Williams2008p234-2] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j George M. Williams (2008). Handbook of Hindu Mythology. Oxford University Press. pp. 234–235. ISBN 978-0-19-533261-2.

[Lochtefeld2002p518-3] James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 518–519. ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4.

[4] Sukumari Bhattacharji (2007). The Indian Theogony. Cambridge University Press. pp. 322–323, 337, 338, 341–342.

[5] "Prajapati, Prajāpati, Prajāpatī, Praja-pati: 30 definitions". 28 September 2010.

[6] Jan Gonda (1982), The Popular Prajāpati Archived 15 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine, History of Religions, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Nov., 1982), University of Chicago Press, pp. 137-141

[JonesRyan2006p332-7] Constance Jones; James D. Ryan (2006). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Infobase Publishing. p. 332. ISBN 978-0-8160-7564-5.

[8] James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 169, 518–519. ISBN 978-0-8239-3180-4.

[Gonda1986p2-9] Jan Gonda (1986). Prajāpatiʼs rise to higher rank. BRILL Academic. pp. 2–5. ISBN 90-04-07734-0.

[gonda130-10] Jan Gonda (1982), The Popular Prajāpati Archived 15 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine, History of Religions, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Nov., 1982), University of Chicago Press, pp. 129-130

[11] Martin West, Early Greek Philosophy and the Orient. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971: 28-34

[alsobrook20-12] Kate Alsobrook (2008), "The Beginning of Time: Vedic and Orphic Theogonies and Poetics". M.A. Thesis, Reviewers: James Sickinger, Kathleen Erndl, John Marincola and Svetla Slaveva-Griffin, Florida State University, pages 20, 1-5, 24-25, 40-44

[13] Robert Graves : The Greek Myths. 1955. vol. 1, p. 31, sec. 2.2

[14] David Adams Leeming (2010). Creation Myths of the World: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 313–314. ISBN 978-1-59884-174-9.

[15] Sukumari Bhattacharji (2007). The Indian Theogony. Cambridge University Press. pp. 322–330.

[Kinsley1988p12-16] David Kinsley (1988). Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition. University of California Press. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-0-520-90883-3.

[Bhattacharji322-17] Sukumari Bhattacharji (2007). The Indian Theogony. Cambridge University Press. pp. 322–323.

[18] Gavin D. Flood (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 45–46. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0.

[19] Henry White Wallis (1887). The Cosmology of the Ṛigveda: An Essay. Williams and Norgate. pp. 61–73, 117.

[20] Laurie L. Patton (2005). Bringing the Gods to Mind: Mantra and Ritual in Early Indian Sacrifice. University of California Press. pp. 113, 216. ISBN 978-0-520-93088-9.

[21] Jan Gonda (1986). Prajāpatiʼs rise to higher rank. BRILL Academic. pp. 20–21. ISBN 90-04-07734-0.

[WilkeMoebus2011p414-22] Annette Wilke; Oliver Moebus (2011). Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 414–416. ISBN 978-3-11-024003-0.

[Leeming2010p144-23] David Adams Leeming (2010). Creation Myths of the World: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 144–146. ISBN 978-1-59884-174-9.

[24] Jan Gonda (1986). Prajāpatiʼs rise to higher rank. BRILL Academic. pp. 5, 14–16. ISBN 90-04-07734-0.

[25] Sukumari Bhattacharji (2007). The Indian Theogony. Cambridge University Press. pp. 324–325.

[26] Jan Gonda (1986). Prajāpatiʼs rise to higher rank. BRILL Academic. pp. 17–18. ISBN 90-04-07734-0.

[27] Sukumari Bhattacharji (2007). The Indian Theogony. Cambridge University Press. pp. 326–327.

[28] Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195352429, pages 3, 279-281; Quote: "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism".

[29] Paul Deussen (1980). Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 19–21, 205, 240, 350, 510, 544. ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4.

[30] Paul Deussen (1980). Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 495. ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4.

[31] Paul Deussen (1980). Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 85, 96–97, 252. ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4.

[32] Paul Deussen (1980). Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 53–56, 471, 534, 540. ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4.

[33] Paul Deussen (1980). Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 371. ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4.

[34] Paul Deussen (1980). Sixty Upaniṣads of the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 21, 106, 198–205, 263, 508, 544. ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4.

[35] Klaus G. Witz (1998). The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 115, 145–153, 363–365. ISBN 978-81-208-1573-5.

[olivelle279-36] The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation. Oxford University Press. 1998. pp. 279–281. ISBN 978-0-19-535242-9.

[37] www.wisdomlib.org (4 January 2019). "Chandogya Upanishad, Verse 1.2.1 (English and Sanskrit)". www.wisdomlib.org. Retrieved 16 January 2023.

[38] Winthrop Sargeant (2010). Christopher Key Chapple (ed.). The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition. State University of New York Press. pp. 37, 167, 491 (verse 11.39). ISBN 978-1-4384-2840-6.

[39] Jan Gonda (1982), The Popular Prajāpati Archived 15 February 2020 at the Wayback Machine, History of Religions, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Nov., 1982), University of Chicago Press, pp. 131-132

[40] Wilkins, W.J. (2003). Hindu Mythology. New Delhi: D.K. Printworld (P) Limited. p. 369. ISBN 81-246-0234-4.

[41] Roshen Dalal (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin. p. 316. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6.

[42] David J. Stuart-Fox (2002). Pura Besakih: Temple, Religion and Society in Bali. KITLV. pp. 92–94, 207–209. ISBN 978-90-6718-146-4.

[43] Between Harmony and Discrimination: Negotiating Religious Identities within Majority-Minority Relationships in Bali and Lombok. BRILL. 2014. pp. 264–266. ISBN 978-90-04-27149-4.

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@@ Line 4: / Line 4: @@
 {{distinguish|Pashupati}}
 {{hatnote|For other uses, see [[Prajapati (disambiguation)]]}}
-[[File:Prajapati.JPG|thumb|Prajapati with similar iconographical features associated with [[Brahma]], a  sculpture from [[Tamil Nadu]].]]
+[[File:Prajapati.JPG|thumb|Prajapati with similar iconographical features associated with [[Brahma]], a sculpture from [[Tamil Nadu]]]]
-[[File:Daksha Prajapati Temple, Banapur , Odisha - 8.jpg|thumb|Sculpture of Prajapati at Daksha Prajapati Temple, Banapur , Odisha]]
+[[File:Daksha Prajapati Temple, Banapur , Odisha - 8.jpg|thumb|A Sculpture of Prajapati at Daksha Prajapati Temple, [[Banapur|Banapur, Odisha]]]]
-'''Prajapati''' ({{lang-sa|प्रजापति|Prajāpati|Lord of creation}}) is a [[Vedas|Vedic]] deity of [[Hinduism]].<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/><ref name="Williams2008p234"/><ref name="Lochtefeld2002p518">{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch |url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-3180-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/518 518]–519}}</ref>
+'''Prajapati''' ({{lang-sa|प्रजापति|lit=Lord of creation}}, {{IAST3|Prajāpati}}) is a [[Vedas|Vedic]] deity of [[Hinduism]].<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/><ref name="Williams2008p234"/><ref name="Lochtefeld2002p518">{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch |url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-3180-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/518 518]–519}}</ref>
-In later literature, Prajapati is identified with the creator-god [[Brahma]], but the term also connotes many different gods, depending on the Hindu text, ranging from being the creator god to being same as one of the following: [[Vishvakarma]], [[Agni]], [[Indra]], [[Daksha]], and many others,<ref name="Dalal2010p311" /> reflecting the diverse [[Hindu cosmology]].<ref name="Williams2008p234" /> In classical and medieval era literature, Prajapati is equated to the metaphysical concept called [[Brahman]] as Prajapati-Brahman (Svayambhu Brahman), or alternatively Brahman is described as one who existed before Prajapati.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sukumari Bhattacharji|title=The Indian Theogony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDc9AAAAIAAJ |year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=322–323, 337, 338, 341–342}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/prajapati | title=Prajapati, Prajāpati, Prajāpatī, Praja-pati: 30 definitions | date=28 September 2010 }}</ref>
+In later literature, Prajapati is identified with the creator-god [[Brahma]], but the term also connotes many different gods depending on the Hindu scriptures, ranging from being the creator god Brahma to being the same as the following: [[Vishvakarma]], [[Agni]], [[Indra]], [[Daksha]], and many others,<ref name="Dalal2010p311" /> reflecting the diverse [[Hindu cosmology]].<ref name="Williams2008p234" /> In classical and medieval era literature, Prajapati is equated to the metaphysical concept called [[Brahman]] as Prajapati-Brahman (Svayambhu Brahman), or alternatively Brahman is described as one who existed before Prajapati.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sukumari Bhattacharji|title=The Indian Theogony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lDc9AAAAIAAJ |year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=322–323, 337, 338, 341–342}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/prajapati | title=Prajapati, Prajāpati, Prajāpatī, Praja-pati: 30 definitions | date=28 September 2010 }}</ref>
 ==Etymology==
@@ Line 17: / Line 17: @@
 The origins of Prajapati are unclear. He appears late in the Vedic layer of texts, and the hymns that mention him provide different cosmological theories in different chapters.<ref name="Lochtefeld2002p518"/> He is missing from the [[Samhita]] layer of Vedic literature, conceived in the [[Brahmana]] layer, states [[Jan Gonda]].<ref name="Gonda1986p2"/> Prajapati is younger than [[Savitr]], and the word was originally an epithet for the sun.<ref name=gonda130>[[Jan Gonda]] (1982), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062566 The Popular Prajāpati] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215195110/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062566 |date=15 February 2020 }}, History of Religions, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Nov., 1982), University of Chicago Press, pp. 129-130</ref> His profile gradually rises in the Vedas, peaking within the [[Brahmana]]s.<ref name="Gonda1986p2">{{cite book|author=Jan Gonda|title=Prajāpatiʼs rise to higher rank |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2OIUAAAAIAAJ |year=1986|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-07734-0|pages=2–5}}</ref> Scholars such as Renou, Keith and Bhattacharji posit Prajapati originated as an abstract or semi-abstract deity in the later Vedic milieu as speculations evolved from the archaic to more learned speculations.<ref name=gonda130/>
-===Indo-European===
+===Similarity with other Indo-European deities===
-A possible connection between Prajapati (and related figures in Indian tradition) and the [[Phanes|Prōtogonos]] ({{lang-grc|Πρωτογόνος}}, literally "first-born") of the Greek [[Orphism (religion)|Orphic tradition]] has been proposed:<ref>Martin West, ''Early Greek Philosophy and the Orient''. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971: 28-34</ref><ref name=alsobrook20>Kate Alsobrook (2008), "The Beginning of Time: Vedic and Orphic Theogonies and Poetics". M.A. Thesis, Reviewers: James Sickinger, Kathleen Erndl, John Marincola and Svetla Slaveva-Griffin, Florida State University, pages 20, 1-5, 24-25, 40-44</ref>
+A possible connection between Prajapati (and related figures in [[Hindu mythology]]) and [[Phanes|Prōtogonos]], ({{lang-grc|Πρωτογόνος}}, literally "first-born") of the Greek [[Orphism (religion)|Orphic tradition]] has been proposed:<ref>Martin West, ''Early Greek Philosophy and the Orient''. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971: 28-34</ref><ref name=alsobrook20>Kate Alsobrook (2008), "The Beginning of Time: Vedic and Orphic Theogonies and Poetics". M.A. Thesis, Reviewers: James Sickinger, Kathleen Erndl, John Marincola and Svetla Slaveva-Griffin, Florida State University, pages 20, 1-5, 24-25, 40-44</ref>
+{{Quote|Protogonos is the [[Orphism (religion)|Orphic mythology]] equivalent of the Vedic Prajapati in several ways: he is the first god born from a cosmic egg, he is the creator of the universe, and in the figure of [[Dionysus]]— a direct descendant of Protogonos — worshippers participate in his death, and rebirth
-{{Quote|
-Protogonos is the [[Orpheus|Orphic]] equivalent of Vedic Prajapati in several ways: he is the first god born from a cosmic egg, he is the creator of the universe, and in the figure of [[Dionysus]]— a direct descendant of Protogonos—worshippers participate in his death and rebirth.
 |Kate Alsobrook|''The Beginning of Time: Vedic and Orphic Theogonies and Poetics''<ref name=alsobrook20/>}}
-According to Robert Graves, the name of /PRA-JĀ[N]-pati/ ('progeny-potentate') is etymologically equivalent to that of the oracular god at [[Colophon (city)|Colophon]] (according to Makrobios<ref>Robert Graves : ''The Greek Myths''. 1955. vol. 1, p. 31, sec. 2.2</ref>), namely /prōtogonos/.{{Citation needed|date=July 2017}} The cosmic egg concept linked to Prajapati and Protogonos is common in many parts of the world, states David Leeming, which appears in later Orphic cult in Greece.<ref>{{cite book|author=David Adams Leeming|title=Creation Myths of the World: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9I62BcuPxfYC |year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-174-9|pages=313–314}}</ref>
+According to Robert Graves, the name of /PRA-JĀ[N]-pati/ ('progeny-potentate') is etymologically equivalent to that of the oracular god Phanes at [[Colophon (city)|Colophon]] (according to Makrobios<ref>Robert Graves : ''The Greek Myths''. 1955. vol. 1, p. 31, sec. 2.2</ref>), namely /prōtogonos/.{{Citation needed|date=July 2017}} The cosmic egg concept linked to Prajapati and Protogonos is common in many parts of the world, states David Leeming, which appears in later Orphic cult in Greece.<ref>{{cite book|author=David Adams Leeming|title=Creation Myths of the World: An Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9I62BcuPxfYC |year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-174-9|pages=313–314}}</ref>
 ==Texts==
-Prajapati is described in many ways and inconsistently in Hindu texts, both in the Vedas and in the post-Vedic texts. These range from being the creator god to being same as one of the following: [[Brahma]], [[Agni]], [[Indra]], [[Vishvakarma]], [[Daksha]] and many others.<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Sukumari Bhattacharji |year= 2007 |title=The Indian Theogony |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lDc9AAAAIAAJ |publisher = Cambridge University Press|pages= 322–330}}</ref>
+Prajapati is described in many ways and inconsistently in Hindu texts, both in the Vedas and in the post-Vedic texts. These range from being the creator god [[Brahma]] to being same as one of the following: [[Agni]], [[Indra]], [[Vishvakarma]], [[Daksha]] and many others.<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Sukumari Bhattacharji |year= 2007 |title=The Indian Theogony |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lDc9AAAAIAAJ |publisher = Cambridge University Press|pages= 322–330}}</ref>
 ===Vedas===
-His role varies within the Vedic texts such as being one who created heaven and earth, all of water and beings, the chief, the father of gods, the creator of ''[[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]]'' and ''[[asura]]s'', the cosmic egg and the [[Purusha]] (spirit).<ref name="Williams2008p234"/><ref name="JonesRyan2006p332">{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC  |year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5|page=332}}</ref> His role peaked in the Brahmanas layer of Vedic text, then declined to being a group of helpers in the creation process.<ref name="Williams2008p234"/> In some Brahmana texts, his role remains ambiguous since he co-creates with the powers with goddess [[Vāc]] (sound).<ref name="Kinsley1988p12">{{cite book|author=David Kinsley|title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins|url-access=registration|year=1988|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-90883-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins/page/12 12]–13}}</ref>
+His role varies within the Vedic texts such as being one who created heaven and earth, all of water and beings, the chief, the father of gods, the creator of [[Hindu deities|devas]] and [[asura]]s the cosmic egg and the [[Purusha]].<ref name="Williams2008p234"/><ref name="JonesRyan2006p332">{{cite book|author1=Constance Jones|author2=James D. Ryan|title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC  |year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7564-5|page=332}}</ref> His role peaked in the [[Brahmana|Brahmanas]] layer of [[Vedas|Vedic]] texts, then declined to being a group of helpers in the creation process.<ref name="Williams2008p234"/> In some Brahmana texts, his role remains ambiguous since he co-creates with the creator goddess [[Vāc]].<ref name="Kinsley1988p12">{{cite book|author=David Kinsley|title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition|url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins|url-access=registration|year=1988|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-90883-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins/page/12 12]–13}}</ref>
-In the ''[[Rigveda]]'', Prajapati appears as an epithet for Savitr, Soma, Agni and Indra, who are all praised as equal, same and lord of creatures.<ref name= Bhattacharji322>{{cite book|author=Sukumari Bhattacharji |year= 2007 |title=The Indian Theogony |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lDc9AAAAIAAJ |publisher = Cambridge University Press|pages= 322–323}}</ref> Elsewhere, in hymn 10.121 of the ''Rigveda'', is described ''Hiranyagarbha'' (golden embryo) that was born from the waters containing everything, which produced Prajapati. It then created ''manah'' (mind), ''kama'' (desire) and ''tapas'' (heat). However, this Prajapati is a metaphor, one of many [[Hindu cosmology]] theories, and there is no supreme deity in the ''Rigveda''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gavin D. Flood|title=An Introduction to Hinduism |url= https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo |url-access=registration|year=1996 |publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 978-0-521-43878-0|pages= [https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/45 45]–46}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Henry White Wallis|title=The Cosmology of the Ṛigveda: An Essay|url= https://archive.org/details/cosmologyigveda00wallgoog|year= 1887|publisher= Williams and Norgate|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cosmologyigveda00wallgoog/page/n67 61]–73, 117}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Laurie L. Patton|title=Bringing the Gods to Mind: Mantra and Ritual in Early Indian Sacrifice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gSZmbbsg9bEC |year=2005|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-93088-9|pages=113, 216}}</ref> One of the striking features about the Hindu Prajapati myths, states Jan Gonda, is the idea that work of creation is a gradual process, completed in stages of trial and improvement.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jan Gonda|title=Prajāpatiʼs rise to higher rank |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2OIUAAAAIAAJ |year= 1986|publisher= BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-07734-0|pages=20–21}}</ref>
+In the ''[[Rigveda]]'', Prajapati appears as an epithet for [[Savitr]], Soma, [[Agni]] and [[Indra]], who are all praised as equal, same and lord of creatures.<ref name= Bhattacharji322>{{cite book|author=Sukumari Bhattacharji |year= 2007 |title=The Indian Theogony |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lDc9AAAAIAAJ |publisher = Cambridge University Press|pages= 322–323}}</ref> Elsewhere, in hymn 10.121 of the ''Rigveda'', is described ''[[Hiranyagarbha]]'' (golden embryo) that was born from the waters containing everything, which produced Prajapati. It then created ''manas'' (mind), ''kama'' (desire) and ''tapas'' (heat). However this Prajapati is a metaphor, one of many [[Hindu cosmology]] theories, and there is no supreme deity in the ''[[Rigveda]]''.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gavin D. Flood|title=An Introduction to Hinduism |url= https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo |url-access=registration|year=1996 |publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn= 978-0-521-43878-0|pages= [https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/45 45]–46}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Henry White Wallis|title=The Cosmology of the Ṛigveda: An Essay|url= https://archive.org/details/cosmologyigveda00wallgoog|year= 1887|publisher= Williams and Norgate|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cosmologyigveda00wallgoog/page/n67 61]–73, 117}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Laurie L. Patton|title=Bringing the Gods to Mind: Mantra and Ritual in Early Indian Sacrifice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gSZmbbsg9bEC |year=2005|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-93088-9|pages=113, 216}}</ref> One of the striking features about the Hindu Prajapati myths, states Jan Gonda, is the idea that work of creation is a gradual process, completed in stages of trial and improvement.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jan Gonda|title=Prajāpatiʼs rise to higher rank |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2OIUAAAAIAAJ |year= 1986|publisher= BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-07734-0|pages=20–21}}</ref>
-In the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'', embedded inside the ''[[Yajurveda]]'', Prajapati emanated from Purusha (cosmic spirit) and Prajapati co-creates the world with the goddess of Language.<ref name="WilkeMoebus2011p414">{{cite book|author1=Annette Wilke|author2=Oliver Moebus|title=Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC |year=2011|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-024003-0|pages=414–416}}</ref> It also includes the "golden cosmic egg" mythology, wherein Prajapati is stated to be born from a golden egg in primeval sea after the egg was incubated for a year. His sounds became the sky, the earth and the seasons. When he inhaled, he created the devas (gods), fire and light. When he exhaled, he created the asuras (demons) and darkness. Then, together with the goddess of Language, he created all beings and time.<ref name="Leeming2010p144">{{cite book|author=David Adams Leeming|title=Creation Myths of the World: An Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9I62BcuPxfYC |year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-174-9|pages=144–146}}</ref> In Chapter 10 of the ''Shatapatha Brahmana'', as well as chapter 13 of ''Pancavimsa Brahmana'', is presented another theory wherein he (Prajapati) is a mother, becomes self-pregnant with all living creatures self-generated, then evil ''Mrtyu'' seizes these beings within his womb, but because these beings are part of the eternal Prajapati, they desire to live long like him.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jan Gonda|title=Prajāpatiʼs rise to higher rank |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2OIUAAAAIAAJ |year= 1986|publisher= BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-07734-0|pages=5, 14–16}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Sukumari Bhattacharji |year= 2007 |title=The Indian Theogony |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lDc9AAAAIAAJ |publisher = Cambridge University Press|pages= 324–325}}</ref>
+In the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'', embedded inside the ''[[Yajurveda]]'', Prajapati emanated from Purusha (cosmic spirit) and Prajapati co-creates the world with Vāc<ref name="WilkeMoebus2011p414">{{cite book|author1=Annette Wilke|author2=Oliver Moebus|title=Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC |year=2011|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-024003-0|pages=414–416}}</ref> It also includes the "golden cosmic egg" mythology, wherein Prajapati is stated to be born from a golden egg in primeval sea after the egg was incubated for a year. His sounds became the sky, the earth and the seasons. When he inhaled, he created the devas, fire, and light. When he exhaled, he created the asuras, and darkness. Then, together with Vāc , he created all beings and time.<ref name="Leeming2010p144">{{cite book|author=David Adams Leeming|title=Creation Myths of the World: An Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9I62BcuPxfYC |year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-174-9|pages=144–146}}</ref> In Chapter 10 of the ''Shatapatha Brahmana'', as well as chapter 13 of ''Pancavimsa Brahmana'', is presented another myth wherein he, Prajapati is a mother, who becomes self-pregnant with all living creatures self-generated, then ''Mrtyu'' seizes these beings within his/her womb, but because these beings are part of the eternal Prajapati they desire to live long like him.<ref>{{cite book|author=Jan Gonda|title=Prajāpatiʼs rise to higher rank |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2OIUAAAAIAAJ |year= 1986|publisher= BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-07734-0|pages=5, 14–16}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Sukumari Bhattacharji |year= 2007 |title=The Indian Theogony |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lDc9AAAAIAAJ |publisher = Cambridge University Press|pages= 324–325}}</ref>
-The ''Aitareya Brahmana'' offers a different myth, wherein Prajapati, having created the gods, metamorphosed into a stag and approached his daughter Dawn who was in the form of a doe, to produce other earthly beings. The gods were horrified by the incest, and joined forces to produce angry destructive [[Rudra]] to punish Prajapati for "doing what is not done". Prajapati was killed by Rudra.<ref name="Leeming2010p144"/> The ''Kausitaki Brahmana'' offers yet another myth, wherein Prajapati created from his own self fire, sun, moon, wind and feminine dawn. The first four saw dawn and released their seeds, which became existence (''Bhava'').<ref name="Leeming2010p144"/>
+The ''Aitareya Brahmana'' offers a different myth, wherein Prajapati, having created the gods, turns into a stag and approaches his daughter[[Ushas]] who was in the form of a doe, to produce other earthly beings. The gods were horrified by the incest, and joined forces to produce the angry destructive [[Rudra]] to punish Prajapati for "doing what is not done". Prajapati was killed by Rudra.<ref name="Leeming2010p144"/> The ''Kausitaki Brahmana'' tells another myth, wherein Prajapati created [[Agni]], [[Surya]], [[Chandra]], [[Vayu]], [[Ushas]] and all deities released their energies and created the universe<ref name="Leeming2010p144"/>
-In section 2.266 of Jaiminiya Brahmana, Prajapati is presented as a spiritual teacher. His student [[Varuna]] lives with him for 100 years, studying the art and duties of being the "father-like king of gods".<ref>{{cite book|author=Jan Gonda|title=Prajāpatiʼs rise to higher rank |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2OIUAAAAIAAJ |year= 1986|publisher= BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-07734-0|pages=17–18}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Sukumari Bhattacharji |year= 2007 |title=The Indian Theogony |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lDc9AAAAIAAJ |publisher = Cambridge University Press|pages= 326–327}}</ref>
+In section 2.266 of [[Samaveda|Jaiminiya Brahmana]], Prajapati is presented as a spiritual teacher. His student [[Varuna]] lives with him for 100 years, studying the art and duties of being the "father-like king of gods".<ref>{{cite book|author=Jan Gonda|title=Prajāpatiʼs rise to higher rank |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2OIUAAAAIAAJ |year= 1986|publisher= BRILL Academic |isbn=90-04-07734-0|pages=17–18}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Sukumari Bhattacharji |year= 2007 |title=The Indian Theogony |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lDc9AAAAIAAJ |publisher = Cambridge University Press|pages= 326–327}}</ref>
 ===Upanishads===
@@ Line 53: / Line 52: @@
 he obtains all the worlds, and all his desires are fulfilled,
 so said Prajapati.
-|[[Chandogya Upanishad]] 8.7.1|Translator: [[Patrick Olivelle]]<ref name=olivelle279>{{cite book|title=The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lsp18ZvstrcC|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535242-9|pages=279–281}}</ref>}}In Chandogya Upanishad 1.2.1, Prajapati appears as the creator (father) of all gods and asuras: "The gods and the demons are both children of Prajāpati, yet they fought among themselves" ({{lang-sa|देवासुरा ह वै यत्र संयेतिरे उभये प्राजापत्यास्तद्ध|translit=devāsurā ha vai yatra saṃyetire ubhaye prājāpatyāstaddha}}).<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2019-01-04 |title=Chandogya Upanishad, Verse 1.2.1 (English and Sanskrit) |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/chandogya-upanishad-english/d/doc238721.html |access-date=2023-01-16 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>
+|[[Chandogya Upanishad]] 8.7.1|Translator: [[Patrick Olivelle]]<ref name=olivelle279>{{cite book|title=The Early Upanishads: Annotated Text and Translation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lsp18ZvstrcC|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-535242-9|pages=279–281}}</ref>}}In Chandogya Upanishad 1.2.1, Prajapati appears as the creator of all devas and asuras. "The gods and goddesses and the demons are both children of Prajapati, yet they fought among themselves." ({{lang-sa|देवासुरा ह वै यत्र संयेतिरे उभये प्राजापत्यास्तद्ध}}, {{IAST3|devāsurā ha vai yatra saṃyetire ubhaye prājāpatyāstaddha}}).<ref>{{Cite web |last=www.wisdomlib.org |date=2019-01-04 |title=Chandogya Upanishad, Verse 1.2.1 (English and Sanskrit) |url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/chandogya-upanishad-english/d/doc238721.html |access-date=2023-01-16 |website=www.wisdomlib.org |language=en}}</ref>
 ===Post-Vedic texts===
-In the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', Brahma is declared to be a Prajapati who creates many males and females, and imbues them with desire and anger, the former to drive them into reproducing themselves and the latter to prevent them from being like gods.<ref name="Leeming2010p144"/> Other chapters of the epics and Puranas declare Shiva or Vishnu to be Prajapati.<ref name= Bhattacharji322/>
+In the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', [[Brahma]] is declared to be a Prajapati who creates many males and females, and imbues them with desire and anger, the former to drive them into reproducing themselves and the latter to prevent them from being like gods.<ref name="Leeming2010p144"/> Other chapters of the epics and Puranas declare [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]] to be Prajapati.<ref name= Bhattacharji322/>
 The ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' uses the epithet Prajapati to describe [[Krishna]], along with many other epithets.<ref>{{cite book|author=Winthrop Sargeant|editor=Christopher Key Chapple|title=The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COuy5CDAqt4C |year=2010|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-1-4384-2840-6|pages=37, 167, 491 (verse 11.39)}}</ref>
-The [[Grhyasutra]]s include Prajapati as among the deities invoked during wedding ceremonies and prayed to for blessings of prosperous progeny, and harmony between husband and wife.<ref>[[Jan Gonda]] (1982), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062566 The Popular Prajāpati] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215195110/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062566 |date=15 February 2020 }}, History of Religions, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Nov., 1982), University of Chicago Press, pp. 131-132</ref>
+The [[Kalpa (Vedanga)|Grhyasutras]] include Prajapati as among the deities invoked during wedding ceremonies and prayed to for blessings of prosperous progeny, and harmony between husband and wife.<ref>[[Jan Gonda]] (1982), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062566 The Popular Prajāpati] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215195110/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062566 |date=15 February 2020 }}, History of Religions, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Nov., 1982), University of Chicago Press, pp. 131-132</ref>
-Prajapati is identified with the personifications of Time, Fire, the Sun, etc. He is also identified with various mythical progenitors, especially (Manu Smrti 1.34) the ten lords of created beings first created by Brahmā: the Prajapatis Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Vasishtha, [[Prachetas]] or [[Daksha]], Bhrigu and Nārada.<ref>{{cite book|title=Hindu Mythology|last=Wilkins|first=W.J.|page=369|publisher=D.K. Printworld (P) Limited|location=New Delhi|isbn=81-246-0234-4|year=2003}}</ref>
+Prajapati is identified with the personifications of Time, Fire, the Sun, etc. He is also identified with various mythical progenitors, especially (Manusmriti 1.34) the ten lords created beings first created by [[Brahma]]: [[Marichi]], [[Atri]], [[Angiras]], [[Pulastya]], [[Pulaha]], [[Kratu]], [[Vasishtha]], [[Daksha]], [[Bhrigu]] and [[Narada]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Hindu Mythology|last=Wilkins|first=W.J.|page=369|publisher=D.K. Printworld (P) Limited|location=New Delhi|isbn=81-246-0234-4|year=2003}}</ref>
-In the [[Puranas]], there are groups of Prajapati called ''Prajapatayah'' who were [[rishi]]s (sages) or "grandfathers" from whom all of humanity resulted, followed by a Prajapatis list that widely varies in number and name between different texts.<ref name="Dalal2010p311">{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|page=311}}</ref><ref name="Williams2008p234">{{cite book|author=George M. Williams|title=Handbook of Hindu Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7LOZfwCDpEC&dq=prajapati+williams+pandas&pg=PA234 |year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533261-2|pages=234–235 }}</ref> According to George Williams, the inconsistent, varying and evolving Prajapati concept in Hindu mythology reflects the diverse [[Hindu cosmology]].<ref name="Williams2008p234"/>
+In the [[Puranas]], there are groups of Prajapatis called ''Prajapatayah'' who were [[rishi]]s (sages) from whom all of the world is created, followed by a Prajapatis list that widely varies in number and name between different texts.<ref name="Dalal2010p311">{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|page=311}}</ref><ref name="Williams2008p234">{{cite book|author=George M. Williams|title=Handbook of Hindu Mythology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N7LOZfwCDpEC&dq=prajapati+williams+pandas&pg=PA234 |year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533261-2|pages=234–235 }}</ref> According to George Williams, the inconsistent, varying and evolving Prajapati concept in Hindu mythology reflects the diverse [[Hindu cosmology]].<ref name="Williams2008p234"/>
-The ''Mahabharata'' and the genre of Puranas call various gods and sages as Prajapati. Some illustrations, states Roshen Dalal, include Agni, Bharata, Shashabindu, Shukra, Havirdhaman, Indra, Kapila, Kshupa, Prithu-Vainya, Soma, Svishtakrit, Tvashtr, Vishvakarma and Virana.<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/>
+The ''Mahabharata'' and the genre of Puranas call various gods and sages as Prajapati. Some illustrations, states Roshen Dalal, include [[Agni]], [[Bharata (sage)|Bharata]], Shashabindu, [[Shukra]], Havirdhaman, [[Indra]], [[Kapila]], Kshupa, [[Prithu]], [[Chandra]], Svishtakrita, [[Tvashtr]], [[Vishvakarma]] and Virana.<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/>
-In the medieval era texts of Hinduism, Prajapati refers to legendary agents of creation, working as gods or sages, who appear in every cycle of creation-maintenance-destruction (''manvantara''). Their numbers vary between seven, ten, sixteen or twenty-one.<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/>
+In the medieval era texts of Hinduism, Prajapati refers to legendary agents of creation, working as gods or sages, who appear in every cycle of creation-maintenance-destruction (''manvantaras''). Their numbers vary between seven, ten, sixteen or twenty-one.<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/>
-===A list of twenty one includes===
+A list of twenty one includes found in the Mahabharata includes:<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/><ref name="Williams2008p234"/>
-# [[Rudra]],
+# [[Rudra]]
-# [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]],
+# [[Manu (Hinduism)|Manu]]
-# [[Daksha]],
+# [[Daksha]]
-# [[Bhrigu]],
+# [[Bhrigu]]
-# [[Dharma]],
+# Dharma
-# [[Tapa (Hinduism)|Tapa]],
+# Tapa
-# [[Yama]],
+# [[Yama]]
-# [[Marichi|Marici]],
+# [[Marichi|Marici]]
-# [[Angiras (sage)|Angiras]],
+# [[Angiras (sage)|Angiras]]
-# [[Atri]],
+# [[Atri]]
-# [[Pulastya]],
+# [[Pulastya]]
-# [[Pulaha]],
+# [[Pulaha]]
-# [[Kratu]],
+# [[Kratu]]
-# [[Vasishtha]],
+# [[Vasishtha]]
-# Parameshti,
+# Parameshti
-# [[Surya]],
+# [[Surya]]
-# [[Chandra]],
+# [[Chandra]]
-# [[Kardama]],
+# [[Kardama]]
-# [[Krodha (Hinduism)|Krodha]] and
+# Krodha
+# Vikrita.
-# [[Vikrita]].<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/><ref name="Williams2008p234"/>
-===A list of sixteen found in the ''Ramayana'' includes===
+A list of sixteen found in the Ramayana includes:<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/>
-# Angiras,
+# [[Angiras]]
-# [[Arishtanemi]],
+# Arishtanemi
-# [[Atri]],
+# [[Atri]]
-# [[Daksha]],
+# [[Daksha]]
-# [[Kardama]],
+# [[Kardama]]
-# [[Kashyapa]],
+# [[Kashyapa]]
-# [[Kratu]],
+# [[Kratu]]
-# [[Marichi]],
+# [[Marichi]]
-# [[Prachetas]],
+# [[Prachetas]]
-# [[Pulaha]],
+# [[Pulaha]]
-# Pulastya,
+# [[Pulastya]]
-# [[Samshraya]],
+# Samshraya
-# [[Shesha]],
+# [[Shesha]]
+# [[Surya]].
-# &emsp; —
-# Vikrita
-# [[Vivasvan]].<ref name="Dalal2010p311"/>
-===A list of ten includes===
+A list of ten in Hindu scriptures includes:<ref name=" Dalal2010p311"/>
-# [[Marichi]],
+# [[Marichi]]
-# [[Angiras]],
+# [[Angiras]]
-# [[Atri]],
+# [[Atri]]
-# [[Pulastya]],
+# [[Pulastya]]
-# [[Pulaha]],
+# [[Pulaha]]
-# [[Kratu]],
+# [[Kratu]]
-# [[Vasishtha]],
+# [[Vasishtha]]
-# [[Daksha]] (or [[Prachetas]]),
+# [[Daksha]]
 # [[Bhrigu]]
-# [[Narada]].<ref name=" Dalal2010p311"/>
+# [[Narada]].
-Their creative role varies. Pulaha, for example, is the mythical mind-born son of Brahma and a great rishi. As one of the Prajapatis, he helps create living wildlife such as lions, tigers, bears, wolves, as well as mythical beasts such as kimpurushas and shalabhas.<ref>{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title= Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|page=316}}</ref>
+Their creative role varies. [[Pulaha]], for example, is the [[Mānasaputra]] of [[Brahma]] and [[Saraswati|Sarasvati]] is a great rishi. As one of the Prajapatis, he creates animals and plants.<ref>{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title= Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC |year=2010 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-341421-6|page=316}}</ref>
 ==Balinese Hinduism==
@@ Line 140: / Line 137: @@
 ==References==
 {{Reflist}}
-==Further reading==
-*''Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend'' ({{ISBN|0-500-51088-1}}) by Anna Dhallapiccola
-==External links==
-*[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Prajapati-Hindu-deity Prajapati: Hindu Deity], ''Encyclopaedia Britannica''
 {{Hindudharma}}
@@ Line 151: / Line 142: @@
 [[Category:Hindu gods]]
+[[Category:Rigvedic deities]]
 [[Category:Prajapatis| ]]
 [[Category:Nature gods]]
 [[Category:Creator gods]]
-[[Category:Nature gods in Hinduism]]