Molala: Difference between revisions
No edit summary Tags: Mobile edit Mobile app edit |
|||
(31 intermediate revisions by 6 users not shown) | |||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{Short description|Native American tribe in present-day Oregon, US}} |
{{Short description|Native American tribe in present-day Oregon, US}} |
||
{{about|the Native American people|their extinct language|Molala language|other uses|Molalla (disambiguation)}} |
{{about|the Native American people|their extinct language|Molala language|other uses|Molalla (disambiguation)}} |
||
The '''Molala''' are a [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people of [[Oregon]] that originally resided in the [[Western Cascades]]. There are few recorded sources about the Molala, the majority being unpublished manuscripts. This assortment includes the works of [[Albert Samuel Gatschet|Albert S. Gatschet]],{{Sfn|Gatschet|1877b}} [[Franz Boas]],{{Sfn|Boas|1890}} [[Leo J. Frachtenberg]], [[Philip Drucker]], [[Melville Jacobs]],{{Sfn|Jacobs|1936}} and [[Leslie Spier]].{{Sfn|Zenk|Rigsby|1998|p=439}} |
|||
The '''Molala''' (also '''Molale''', '''Molalla''', '''Molele''') are a people of the [[Plateau Indians|Plateau]] culture area in the Oregon Cascades and central [[Oregon]], United States. They are one of the [[Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon]], with 141 of the 882 members in the 1950s claiming Molala descent. The Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians also has Molalla representation among its confederation of Tribes and Bands. The Siletz Reservation was established in 1855, for the Coast, Willamette and Umpqua Tribes (Rogue River and Shasta Tribes soon after added). The Molalla are one of the Tribes who signed the 1855 Willamette Valley Treaty (aka Kalapuya, etc. Treaty). |
|||
Descendants of the Molala reside on the [[Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon]], [[Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians]], and the [[Klamath Tribes]].{{Sfn|Zenk|Rigsby|1998|pp=444-445}} In the 1950s 141 of the 882 Grand Ronde Reservation members claimed Molala descent. |
|||
==Origin of name== |
|||
The designation '''Molala''' is considered to have originated from the [[Clackamas people|Clackamas]] '''''muláliš'''''.{{sfn|Boas|1890}}{{sfn|Jacobs|1959|p=551}} Variants in written literature include ''Molalla'',{{Sfn|Berreman|1937|p=44}}{{Sfn|Johnson|1999}} ''Molallie,''{{sfn|McClane|1889}} ''Mólale'',{{sfn|Gatschet|1877a}} ''Molále'',{{sfn|Gatschet|1877a}} ''Molele'',{{Sfn|Hale|1846|p=214}} ''Moolalle''.{{Sfn|Gibbs|Starling|1851}} Related terms used by [[Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau|neighboring indigenous]] included '''''mólališ''''' by the [[Wasco–Wishram|Wasco]] and [[Tenino people|Tenino]],{{sfn|Rigsby|1969|pp=80-81}} and '''''mulé•lis''''' by the [[Kalapuya|Kalapuyans]].{{sfn|Jacobs|1936}} The Tenino additionally referred to the Molalas as '''''łytilpam''''' and '''''táytilpam''''',{{sfn|Rigsby|1969|pp=80-81}} likely borrowed by the [[Cayuse people|Cayuse]] as '''''tlĭ-tŭn-pŭm'''''.{{sfn|Rigsby|1969|p=134}} The Molalas were called '''''kúikni''''' by the [[Klamath people|Klamath]].{{sfn|Gatschet|1890|p=157}} |
|||
==Homeland== |
|||
[[File:Lake and Forest, Umpqua National Forest (35681931993).jpg|A view of the [[Umpqua National Forest]], part of the Molala homeland|upright=1.5|thumb]] |
|||
Molala territory once stretched across the [[Western Cascades]]; from [[Mount Hood]] and the [[Molalla River]] in the north to the [[Rogue River (Oregon)|Rogue]] headwaters in the south. Dense forests of [[Tsuga heterophylla|western hemlock]], [[Douglas fir]], and [[Thuja plicata|western red cedar]] inundated the region. Fire was utilized by the Molala to create openings in these dense stands for preferred food resources.{{Sfn|Zenk|Rigsby|1998|p=439}} |
|||
[[File:Mount June old-growth, Oregon.JPG|A mixed western hemlock ane and Douglas fir canopy |upright=0.9|thumb]] |
|||
In his 1846 work Hale placed the Molala as largely between the Deschutes River and the Eastern Cascades.{{Sfn|Hale|1846|p=197}} In 1891 [[John Wesley Powell]] considered the Molala to have once "occupied a belt of mountain country south of the Columbia River, chiefly about Mounts Hood and Jefferson."{{Sfn|Powell|1891|p=127}} |
|||
===Tygh Valley origin hypothesis=== |
|||
In 1928 [[James Teit]] presented the idea that the Molala once resided in [[Tygh Valley, Oregon|Tygh Valley]]. He claimed pressure from the Northern Paiute forced the Molala to relocate to the Western Cascades.{{Sfn|Teit|1928|p=100-101}} Joel V. Berreman accepted Teit's hypothesis and in 1937 expanded upon it.{{Sfn|Berreman|1937|p=44- |
|||
46}} |
|||
The three informants used by Teit were appraised as being invalid by other scholars. None were descendants or related to the Molala, Northern Paiute, or the Tenino. According to [[George Murdock]] this didn't "constitute an adequate basis for a definitive reconstruction of the history" of these native societies.{{Sfn|Murdock|1938|p=400}} |
|||
In the 1930s Tenino informants of the Warm Springs Reservation told Murdock that Molalas once had a winter village in Tygh Valley. Large quantities of [[Sockeye salmon]] and [[Columbia River redband trout]] were gathered every spring along the [[Deschutes River (Oregon)|Deschutes River]] at [[Sherars Falls]]. According to Murdock, sometime in the early 19th century, coveting this bountiful resource, Tenino warriors forced the Molala to flee to the western Cascades.{{sfn|Murdock|1938|pp=396-398}} |
|||
During the 1960s, Rigsby interviewed several informants at the Warm Springs Reservation to match Murdock's narrative. No one recalled stories of conflict with the Molala, or of their supposed eviction from Tygh Valley. One informant stated that after the fish runs ended in the [[Willamette Valley]], certain Molala would travel to Sherars Falls to continue fishing.{{Sfn|Rigsby|1969|p=80}} |
|||
After a decade of work among the Wascos and Sahaptins of Warm Springs, [[David H. French (anthropologist)|David H. French]] determined that Sahaptin inhabitation of Tygh Valley and utilization of the Deschutes Watershed predated the 19th century. Both French and Rigsby concluded the regional resources were jointly used by Sahaptin speakers, Wasco-Wishram peoples, and the [[Northern Paiute people|Northern Paiute]]. The Molala perhaps visited but didn't permanently inhabit the area during the 19th century.{{Sfn|Rigsby|1969|pp=81-82}} |
|||
==Culture== |
|||
===Society=== |
|||
Molala society was centered upon winter villages. Usually these were composed of a single extended family and placed in low-elevation locations. Winter homesteads were made of red cedar and western hemlock planks and semi-subterranean. Summer homes were unexcavated and composed of either thatch or bark.{{sfn|Zenk|Rigsby|1998|pp=441-442}} |
|||
When seasonal resources became available the family would separate into smaller groups to exploit and gather them. Due to these population trends leadership among the Molala was in turn quite decentralized, localized, and task-orientated. The wealthiest individuals of a village were referred to as ''yaʔqánt'' by the Molala or simply [[Tribal chief|chiefs]] by settlers. Assistance to relatives was the primary source of ''yaʔqánt'' influence. Ownership of slaves and horses, along with animal hides and [[Dentalium shell|dentalium crafts]], were the primary sources of wealth in Molala society.{{Sfn|Zenk|Rigsby|1998|p=443}} |
|||
===Subdivisions=== |
|||
The Molala were initially separated into two groups by scholars, although evidence of a third division exists. However, little is recorded of the linguistic and cultural diversity among the Molala peoples.{{Sfn|Minor|Pecor|1977|p=80}} The three reported groupings are the Southern Molala, the Upper Santiam Molala, and the Northern Molala.{{sfn|Zenk|Rigsby|1998|p=445}} |
|||
[[File:Wizard Island in Crater Lake National Park - Oregon 2008.jpg|Crater Lake|upright=1.3|thumb]] |
|||
The Southern Molala inhabited the headwaters of the Rogue and [[Umpqua River|Umpqua Rivers]] along the bases of [[Crater Lake]] and [[Mount McLoughlin]]. They were called '''''tulǽyaŋsi''''', far-off people, by the Northern Molala,{{Sfn|Rigsby|1969|p=78}} while the Klamath referred to them as '''''čakġe•nkni•''''', "''[[Amelanchier alnifolia|Serviceberry]]-Area-People''"{{Sfn|Gatschet|1890|pp=157, 426}}{{Sfn|Spier|1930|p=4}}{{Sfn|Zenk|Rigsby|1998|p=445}} or "''People of the Serviceberry Tract''."{{Sfn|Johnson|1999}} |
|||
[[File:North Santiam River above dam.jpg|The North Santiam River|upright=1.3|thumb]] |
|||
Molala of the [[Santiam River]] are called the "Upper Santiam Molala" by ethnologists to differentiate them from the neighboring Santiam Kalapuyans. [[Franz Boas]] recorded '''''čimbú•ihe''''' as a native settlement outside [[Albany, Oregon|Albany]],{{sfn|Boas|1890}} which was later reported by [[Albert Samuel Gatschet|Albert S. Gatschet]] as a Molala village located on the Santiam headwaters.{{sfn|Gatschet|1877|p=363}}{{sfn|Zenk|Rigsby|1998|p=445}} |
|||
[[File:Molalla River (22308261776).jpg|The Molalla River|upright=1.3|thumb]] |
|||
The Northern Molala principally were concentrated in the Molalla River watershed. The only recorded Northern Molala autonym is '''''lá•ti•wi''''', used to mean both "''Molala person"'' and "''Molala people"''.{{sfn|Zenk|Rigsby|1998|p=445}} |
|||
===Diet=== |
|||
{{Multiple image |
|||
| image1 = Dean Creek Elk 1 (10862138964).jpg |
|||
| caption1 = Roosevelt Elk |
|||
| image2 = Odocoileus hemionus columbianus (male and female), Point Reyes National Seashore.jpg |
|||
| caption2 = Columbian Black-Deer |
|||
| image3 = Chinook salmon, Semiahmoo Fish and Game Club.jpg |
|||
| caption3 = Chinook Salmon |
|||
}} |
|||
[[Roosevelt elk]] and [[Black-tailed deer]] were "economically the most important resource exploited" by the Molala peoples.{{Sfn|Zenk|Rigsby|1998|p=440}} While they employed pitfalls and snares, most big game hunting was accomplished by bow and arrow. Hunting dogs were trained to pursue game as well. Klamath informants told Spier that Molala dogs were small, "with short legs, the hind legs crooked. They were short-haired, had erect ears, short faces, with sometimes black marks on the upper eyelids..."{{Sfn|Spier|1930|p=158}} A number of other animals were hunted, not for sustenance but for feathers or fur, such as the [[bald eagle]], [[Coyote|coyotes]], and [[Bobcat|bobcats]]. [[Steelhead]] and [[Chinook salmon]] were captured by either basket traps or harpoons. Once gathered the meat was dried and stored for future consumption. |
|||
[[File:Camas Bread (WHMI 15) (a459362e-8d95-4cd0-a7c8-8e8277ee00c9).JPG|A bread made from camas bulbs.|thumb]] |
|||
A number of plant resources were utilized seasonally by the Molala. In their western territories were prairies of [[Camassia quamash|camas bulbs]], an important caloric source. Found in the drier prairies, [[Corylus cornuta|hazelnuts]] and [[Madia elegans|tarweed seeds]] were gathered in the summer and autumn. Camas bulbs were baked in [[Earth oven|earth ovens]], dried, blended with hazelnuts, and stored in sacks. To east, in the higher elevations of the Cascades, [[Vaccinium membranaceum|Mountain Huckleberries]] were collected in the late summer; alongside the [[Vaccinium deliciosum|Cascade Blueberry]], the [[Vaccinium ovalifolium|Oval-leaf Huckleberry]], and the [[Vaccinium parvifolium|Red Huckleberry]]. After being gathered huckleberries would be dried. |
|||
{{Multiple image |
|||
| image1 = Fragaria virginiana (wild strawberry) (Great Smoky Mountains, Tennessee, USA) 1 (36641037730).jpg |
|||
| caption1 = Wild Strawberries |
|||
| image2 = Vaccinium membranaceum Fruit.jpg |
|||
| caption2 = Mountain Huckleberries |
|||
| image3 = Amelanchier alnifolia 2801.JPG |
|||
| caption3 = Pacific Serviceberries |
|||
| total_width = |
|||
}} |
|||
Located nearby Crater Lake, Huckleberry Mountain was the "single-most important berry-gathering area" for the Southern Molala and Klamath.{{Sfn|Spier|1930|pp=9, 160}}{{Sfn|Deur|2002a|p=30, 32}} Edible berries in the vicinity include the [[Vaccinium scoparium|Littleleaf Huckleberry]], [[Vaccinium uliginosum|Western Blueberry]], [[Arctostaphylos viscida|Manzanita Berry]], [[Fragaria virginiana|Wild Strawberry]], [[Lonicera involucrata|Black Twinberry]], [[Rubus laciniatus|Evergreen Blackberry]], [[Rubus occidentalis|Blackcap Raspberry]], [[Rubus parviflorus|Thimbleberry]], [[Sambucus cerulea|Blue Elderberry]], [[Sambucus racemosa|Red Elderberry]], [[Ribes cereum|Wax Currant]], and [[Rose hips]] from the local [[Rosa woodsii|Wild Rose]].{{Sfn|Deur|2002b|p=20-21}}{{Sfn|Turner|2017}} |
|||
===Manufacturerd items=== |
|||
Molala made [[Composite bow|composite bows]] from [[Taxus brevifolia|Pacific Yew]] and [[Tendon|sinew]].{{Sfn|Spier|1930|p=194}} |
|||
==Language== |
==Language== |
||
{{Main|Molala language}} |
|||
The [[Molala language]] was a member of the [[Plateau Penutian]] family. It was previously considered a language isolate. Molala is now extinct. |
|||
The [[Molala language]] is extinct. Currently it is included among the [[Plateau Penutian]] [[language family]], with [[Klamath language|Klamath]] and [[Sahaptin language|Sahaptin]] being considered the closest related.{{sfn|Pharris|2006|pp=358-359}}{{sfn|NLA|2005}} |
|||
==Neighoring societies== |
|||
Prior to the introduction of horses in the 1820s-1830s,{{Sfn|Zenk|Rigsby|p=440}} Molala contact with their neighbors appears to have been slight. They resided between several divergent cultural areas which were shaped by distinct ecological regions. Among the bordering peoples were the Kalapuya to west in the Willamette Valley, the Upper Chinookans to north on the Columbia River, and the Klamath to the southeast. |
|||
Upper Chinookan crafted canoes were particularly sought after by the Northern Molala. [[Artificial cranial deformation|Head flattening]] was practiced to bolster the desirability of their women to the Chinookans.{{Sfn|Zenk|Rigsby|pp=439-440}}{{Sfn|Spier|1930|p=59}} While some intermarriage with Kalapuyans was reported, the Molala attacked them for slaves.{{Sfn|Zenk|Rigsby|pp=439, 443}} The Klamath people were intimately close to the Molala,{{Sfn|Spier|1930|p=24}} enough to "suggest contact between these two groups throughout the entire area of Molala occupation."{{Sfn|Zenk|Rigsby|p=440}} The Southern Molala exchanged buckskins in return for Klamath crafted beads and [[Nuphar polysepala|wocus seeds]].{{Sfn|Spier|1930|p=41}} |
|||
Groups of armed men called the ''haylúnci'', "upstreamers", occasionally attacked Molala settlements for slaves {{Sfn|Zenk|Rigsby|1998|p=443}} These slavers were from the Cayuse and [[Nez Perce]] peoples.{{Sfn|Rigsby|1965|p=240}} Gatschet reported the last known Cayuse raid occurred in the late 1820s.{{sfn|Gatschet|1877b}} A Molala man of social prominence was killed in the attack. A Clackamas man served as an intermediary between the Molala and the Cayuse raiders to arrange for a battle. In the ensuing two day skirmish the Molalas considered themselves victorious.{{sfn|MacKey|1972|pp=64-65}}{{sfn|Minto|1903|p=241}} |
|||
==Mythology== |
|||
Only a few Molala myths remain extant, recorded by ethnographers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.{{Sfn|Zenk|Rigsby|1998|p=444}} Boas recounts a story told by the Molala of the world once being entirely covered in water. As the world ocean receded, [[Mount Hood]] became exposed first and latter the Willamette Valley.{{Sfn|Boas|1890}} |
|||
{{Multiple image |
|||
| image1 = Grizzly Bear Yellowstone.jpg |
|||
| image2 = Coyote Tule Lake CA.jpg |
|||
| caption1 = Grizzly Bear |
|||
| caption2 = Coyote |
|||
}} |
|||
A prominent story is the creation of the Molala people, told by Stephen Savage to Gatschet in 1877.{{Sfn|Gatschet|1877b}} One day near Mount Hood, [[Coyote (mythology)|Coyote]] encountered Grizzly Bear, who challenged them to a duel. Rather than combat, Coyotes suggests on seeing who could eat the most hot stones. However, instead of ingesting rocks, Coyote ate wild strawberries. After eating five hot stones Grizzly Bear died and Coyote studied the corpse:{{Blockquote|text=He skinned Grizzly, then began cutting him up; he scattered his body in little pieces all over. Then to the Molala country he threw the heart. He said, "Now the Molala will be good hunters: they will all be good men, thinking and studying about hunting deer. They will think all the time they are on a hunt."{{Sfn|Ramsey|1977|p=118}}{{Sfn|Johnson|1999}}{{Sfn|Gatschet|1877b}}}} |
|||
[[File:MtHood Sunrise.jpg|The Molala believed they were created by Coyote from atop Mount Hood.|upright=1.2|thumb]] |
|||
==History== |
==History== |
||
===Tensions with settlers=== |
|||
The ancestral lands of the Molala people were located south of the [[Columbia River]], with various areas occupied for seasonal resource exploitation. During the winter members of the nation resided in the vicinity of modern [[Tygh Valley, Oregon|Tygh Valley]].<ref name=EastOregon>Verne F. Ray, George Peter Murdock, Beatrice Blyth, Omer C. Stewart, Jack Harris, E. Adamson Hoebel and D. B. Shimkin ''Tribal Distribution in Eastern Oregon and Adjacent Regions.'' American Anthropologist 40, No. 3 (1938), pp. 384-415.</ref> During the spring Molalas moved to a site along the [[Deschutes River (Oregon)|Deschutes River]] near what is now [[Antelope, Oregon|Antelope]].<ref name=EastOregon/> Stockpiles of fish would be gathered there, including the [[Sockeye salmon]] and [[Columbia River redband trout]]. Throughout the summer and autumn outside modern [[Wapinitia, Oregon|Wapinitia]] Molalas would dig for the tubers of [[Camassia quamash|camas]] and [[Sagittaria latifolia|wapato]], along with collecting regional berries.<ref name=EastOregon/> |
|||
In late March 1848, settlers burnt down a Molala headman's household who was out hunting. [[William G. T'Vault|William T'Vault]] admonished the violence for creating tension with the natives of the Willamette Valley. The violence was in retaliation for a visiting Klamath having stolen "some article of trifling value..."{{Sfn|T'Vault|1848}} |
|||
During the Spring 1848, eighty Klamath people arrived in contemporary [[Clackamas County, Oregon|Clackamas county]]. This occurred during the ongoing [[Cayuse War]], which provoked settler paranoia of indigenous violence. The Klamath were asked to leave, but they refused. Local Molala headman Crooked Finger protected the right for Klamath to reside among their Molala relatives. After a series of thefts, an armed group of settlers killed several Klamath and forced them to flee eastwards into the Cascade Mountains.{{sfn|Lewis|2017}} One late 19th century account misremembered the violence as between settlers and Molala, rather than the Klamath.{{Sfn|Hendricks|1886}} |
|||
The Molala traditionally occupied the western slopes of the Cascade Mountain range. Relocating to portions of the [[Willamette Valley]], the Molala had to contend with groups of [[Cayuse people|Cayuse]] warriors that occasionally attacked their settlements for slaves. During the last known Cayuse raid, likely in the late 1820s,<ref name=MacKey>MacKey, Harold. ''New Light on the Molala Indians.'' Oregon Historical Quarterly 73, No. 1 (1972), pp. 63-65.</ref> a Molala nobleman was killed. A [[Clackamas people|Clackamas]] man was used as an intermediary between local Molala soldiers and the Cayuse raiders to arrange for a second battle.<ref name=MacKey/> The fighting was likely held at [[Minto Pass]],<ref>Minto, John. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20609580''Minto Pass: Its History, and an Indian Tradition.''] The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society 4, No. 3 (1903), pp. 241-250.</ref> and lasted for two days, the Molalas considering it a victory.<ref name=MacKey/> |
|||
During June 1848 a group of Molala or Klamath were suspected of stealing clothing and a horse. A militia was formed and pursued the group of natives, who abandoned the settler's horse and two horses of their own.{{Sfn|Curry|1848}} |
|||
In 1848, Molala war chief Loshuk (Crooked Finger) led 150 warriors (Molala, Klamath, Umpqua, Rogue, Atsugewi, Achomawi, Modoc) against the white men in the Willamette Valley, but they were ambushed near the Butte Creek, and their village on the Abiqua Creek shore was attacked.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ndnhistoryresearch.com/2017/12/30/the-battle-of-abiqua-second-battle-of-the-willamette-valley/|title=The Battle of Abiqua, Second Battle of the Willamette Valley|first1=David G.|last1=Lewis|publisher=Ethnohistory Research, LLC|date=December 30, 2017|access-date=May 14, 2019}}</ref> Crooked Finger and his warriors took part in the [[Cayuse War]], as allies of their kinsmen. |
|||
===Treaty negotiations=== |
|||
==Footnotes== |
|||
In 1850 [[Anson Dart]] was appointed [[Oregon Superintendent of Indian Affairs]]. Federal orders were for the various native peoples residing west of Cascades to be forcibly relocated to reservations established to the east of the mountains. Dart started negotiations with the various Willamette Valley natives in Spring 1851 at [[Champoeg, Oregon|Champoeg]]. He was unable to get anyone to agree to removal into Eastern Oregon. The general lack of knowledge of available food resources in the unfamiliar region caused much of the protest.{{Sfn|CTSI|2024}} |
|||
{{reflist}} |
|||
Going against his initial orders, Dart eventually acquiesced to establishing reservations in the Willamette Valley.{{Sfn|Coan|1921|p=56}} Among the Treaties drafted by Dart were two for the Molala. In exchange for yielding much of their territory, on 6 May, the Northern Molala agreed to payments of goods, cash, and a reservation centered on the Molalla River eastwards to the Cascades. On the following day the Upper Santiam Molala agreed to similar terms, with a reservation going from [[Mount Jefferson (Oregon)|Mt. Jefferson]] westward to the Santiam River.{{Sfn|Lewis|2014}}{{Sfn|Gibbs|Starling|1851}} There were 121{{Sfn|Zenk|Rigsby|1998|p=444}} or 123{{Sfn|Schnebly|1851}} Molalas total between the two groups. |
|||
==Further reading== |
|||
* John B. Horner, [https://archive.org/details/oregonherhistor00horngoog "Oregon: Her History, Her Great Men, Her Literature."] Portland, OR: J.K. Gill Co., 1919. |
|||
* Marianne Mithun,''The Languages of Native North America.'' Cambridge England: Cambridge University Press, 1999. |
|||
* Nicholas J. Pharris, Nicholas J., ''Winuunsi Tm Talapaas: A Grammar of the Molalla Language.'' Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 2006. |
|||
Because these agreements allowed for the Kalapuyans and Molala to retain portions of the Willamette Valley, settlers protested the Dart Treaties. Their complaints reached the US Congress, which subsequently refused to approve the Treaties.{{Sfn|Spores|1993|p=178}}{{Sfn|Coan|1921|p=56}} Dart resigned in consequence, leaving the issue of Molala sovereignty unresolved.{{Sfn|Lewis|2014}} |
|||
==External links== |
|||
* [http://www.usgennet.org/usa/or/county/clackamas/molallas.html One on the Molalals] |
|||
Joel Palmer was the next Superintendent who negotiated a series of Treaties with Oregon Natives that were largely approved by the Federal Government. At [[Dayton, Oregon|Dayton]] in January 1855 he oversaw a series of negotiations that resulted in the Willamette Valley Treaty. Among others, the Northern and Upper Santiam Molala agreed to abandon the Willamette Valley in favor of a location selected by Palmer.{{Sfn|Spores|1993|pp=181-183}} The agreement was ratified by Congress in March 1855. |
|||
* [http://www.orww.org/Reports/Owl_Ridge_Trails/Part_1-2_History-Methods.pdf A second link on the Molalas] |
|||
* [http://dibblehouse.org/molala-indians.html The third link on the Molalas] |
|||
===Reservation=== |
|||
* [http://www.native-languages.org/molale.htm On the Molala language, plus Molalla Culture and History Links] |
|||
In Autumn 1855 "the last Indian scare of any importance" in the Willamette Valley occurred. Fears arose that a force of Klamath were incoming to sack settler homesteads. After a day however a group of Molalas informed the fearful settlers no conflict with the Klamath was imminent.{{Sfn|Hunsacker|1917}} |
|||
* [http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/molala-tribe.htm Some genealogy of the Molalas] |
|||
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=nLLO_ythv_4C&pg=PA11&lpg=PA11&dq=Molala+History+indians&source=bl&ots=frOfEHDJ11&sig=p_KR6F1dBpectr6rGRx-tR1EU4o&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj9koaLn9XJAhUwo4MKHTukBXYQ6AEIOjAE#v=onepage&q=Molala%20History%20indians&f=false A google book] |
|||
During the winter of 1855-1856 the Northern Molala and Upper Santiam Molala were forced to relocate to the newly established Grand Ronde Reservation.{{Sfn|Jette|2014}} In 1889 there were reportedly 31 Molalas residing on the Grand Ronde Reservation.{{sfn|McClane|1889}} |
|||
In 1857, settlers located around [[Molalla, Oregon|Molalla]] complained about the nearby Grand Ronde Reservation: |
|||
{{Blockquote|text="[Natives are] constantly annoying the settlers by passing to and fro over our premises, leaving fences down, and occasionally committing petit larcenies...The fact is, these Indians are a nuisance..."{{Sfn|Adams|1857}}}} |
|||
Reportedly in November 1870 an outbreak of smallpox spread among the Molala residing in [[Clackamas County, Oregon|Clackamas County]].{{Sfn|Brown|1870}} |
|||
To avoid the settler violence, some Southern Molala moved onto the Klamath Reservation during the mid-19th century.{{Sfn|Deur|2002a|p=33}}{{Sfn|Deur|2002b|p=12}} In April 1870, a Molala resident of the Klamath Reservation named Spike attempted to kill three people, succeeding in murdering one Klamath. He was captured and presented to Agency officials. After a short trial Spike was executed by hanging.{{Sfn|Clarke|1870}} In 1881 there 55 Molalas living among the Klamath.{{Sfn|Zenk|Rigsby|1998|p=444}} |
|||
At the opening ceremonies of the 1915 Siletz Fair, a Molala headman named John Williams delivered an address that was described by the ''Lincoln County Leader'' as "eloquent, patriotic and impressive."{{Sfn|Collins|1914}} The newspaper continued to detail Williams' speech: |
|||
{{Blockquote|text="He was proud of his Indian blood and urged his people to stand by their race. Fifty years of education and training has made the Indians capable of citizenship. He thought the future was bright with hope for the Indians. He urged his people to seize the opportunities that surround them and make the most of them."{{Sfn|Collins|1914}}}} |
|||
In September 1919 Williams led a group of 60 Siletz residents to [[Independence, Oregon|Independence]]. There, they were joined by 50 Grand Ronde members, and the group participated in the annual hop harvest.{{Sfn|Jackson|1919}} |
|||
Henry Yelkes was one of the last Molala yaʔqánt. He maintained a homestead on the Northern fork of the Molalla River and was held in high regard by neighboring settlers.{{Sfn|Jackson|1913a}}{{Sfn|Hendricks|1915}} In September 1913, during festivities in the town of Molalla, Yelkes was the guest of honor. The event was held to celebrate the opening of passenger rail service by the Portland, Eugene & Eastern Railway Company. Before the assembled crowds, the otherwise reserved Yelkes spoke: {{Blockquote|text="I am the last of the Molalla Indians. They named this place from our tribe. When I was a boy there were many of my people here Now they are all gone. My hat of deerskin and flicker feathers belonged to my grandfather. But he and the old times are gone."{{Sfn|Jackson|1913b}}}} |
|||
In September 1913 Yelkes was found dead with head injuries.{{Sfn|Taber|1913}} Two months later in November, a Clackamas County grand jury issued a warrant for Harry Clark, a mixed race native.{{Sfn|Jackson|1913c}} The coroner upon examination of Yelkes' body felt he died from alcohol. In the subsequent trial the jury concluded there was a lack of evidence tying Clark to the death of Yelkes. Clark was released in January 1914.{{Sfn|Jackson|1914}} |
|||
==Legacy== |
|||
A private collection of Molala artifacts located in Mt Angel in 1931 included 535 flint arrowheads, an 8 inch tomahawk head, and an assortment of beadwork.{{Sfn|Putnam|1931}} |
|||
As of 2008, Molala produced beaded moccasins and woven baskets were on display at the [[British Museum]], the [[Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture|Burke]] and [[Whatcom Museum|Whatcom Museums]] of [[Washington (state)|Washington]], and the Museum of the Oregon Territory of [[Oregon City, Oregon]].{{Sfn|Chapman|Ray|2008|p=11}} |
|||
==Notable Molala== |
|||
* [[Molala Kate Chantal]] (c. 1844–1938), ethnographic informant and among the last speakers of Molala |
|||
* [[Victoria Wishikin Howard]] (c. 1865–1930), storyteller |
|||
==Bibliography== |
|||
===Articles=== |
|||
* {{Cite journal |last=Coan |first=C. F. |date=1921 |title=The First Stage of the Federal Indian Policy in the Pacific Northwest, 1849-1852 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20610175 |journal=The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society |location=Portland, OR |publisher=[[Oregon Historical Society]] |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=46–89 |jstor=20610175 |issn=2153-1706 |via=[[JSTOR]]}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal |last=Deur |first=Douglas |date=2002a |title=A Most Sacred Place: The Significance of Crater Lake among the Indians of Southern Oregon |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20615207 |journal=Oregon Historical Quarterly |language=En |volume=103 |issue=1 |pages=18–49 |jstor=20615207 |issn=0030-4727 |via=[[JSTOR]]}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal |last=Gatschet |first=Albert S. |date=1877a |title=Indian Languages of the Pacific States and Territories |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wa1EAQAAMAAJ |journal=Magazine of American History |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=145–166 |via=[[Google Books]]}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal |last=Jacobs |first=Meville |author-link=Melville Jacobs |date=1959 |editor-last=Voegelin |editor-first=Charles F. |editor-link=Charles F. Voegelin |title=Clackamas Chinook Texts Part 2 |url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001655832 |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |publisher=[[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]] |volume=25 |issue=2 |via=[[Project MUSE]]}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Oscar |date=1999 |title=The Molalla: a nation of good hunters |url=https://www.usgennet.org/usa/or/county/clackamas/molallas.html |url-status=dead |journal=[[Smoke Signals (newspaper)|Smoke Signals]] |publisher=[[Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200116222246/https://www.usgennet.org/usa/or/county/clackamas/molallas.html |archive-date=2020-01-16}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal |last=MacKey |first=Harold |date=1972 |title=New Light on the Molala Indians |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20613280 |journal=[[Oregon Historical Quarterly]] |volume=73 |issue=1 |pages=63–65 |jstor=20613280 |via=JSTOR}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal |last=Minto |first=John |author-link=John Minto |date=1903 |title=Minto Pass: Its History, and an Indian Tradition |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20609580 |journal=[[Oregon Historical Quarterly|The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society]] |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=241–250 |jstor=20609580 |via=[[JSTOR]]}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal |last=Murdock |first=George |author-link=George Murdock |date=1938 |title='Notes on the Tenino, Molala, and Paiute of Oregon' in Tribal Distribution in Eastern Oregon and Adjacent Regions |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/662038 |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=395–402 |jstor=662038 |via=[[JSTOR]]}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal |last=Spores |first=Ronald |date=1993 |title=Too Small a Place: The Removal of the Willamette Valley Indians, 1850-1856 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1185526 |journal=American Indian Quarterly |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=171–191 |doi=10.2307/1185526 |jstor=1185526 |issn=0095-182X |via=[[JSTOR]]}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal |last=Rigsby |first=Bruce |author-link=Bruce Rigsby |date=Spring 1969 |editor-last=Sprague |editor-first=Roderick |editor-link=Roderick Sprague |editor2-last=Goss |editor2-first=James A. |title=The Waiilatpuan Problem: More on Cayuse-Molala Relatability |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_s2-DwAAQBAJ |journal=Journal of Northwest Anthropology |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=68–146 |via=[[Google Books]]}} |
|||
* {{Cite journal |last=Teit |first=James H. |date=1928 |editor-last=Boas |editor-first=Franz |editor-link=Franz Boas |title=The Middle Columbia Salish |url=https://digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu/digital/collection/lctext/id/1571/ |journal=University of Washington Publications in Anthropology |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |publication-place=Seattle, WA |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=83–128 |via=[[University of Washington]]}} |
|||
===Books=== |
|||
* {{Cite book |last=Berreman |first=Joel V. |url=https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/downloads/8s45qd622 |title=Tribal Distribution in Oregon |publisher=[[American Anthropological Association]] |year=1937 |editor-last=Spier |editor-first=Leslie |editor-link=Leslie Spier |series=Memoirs of American Anthropological Association |location=Menasha, WI |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200710124052/https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/downloads/8s45qd622 |archive-date=2020-07-10 |url-status=live |issue=47}} |
|||
* {{Cite book |last1=Chapman |first1=Judith S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nLLO_ythv_4C |title=Molalla |last2=Ray |first2=Lois E. H. |publisher=[[Arcadia Publishing]] |year=2008 |series=Images of America|isbn=978-0-7385-5613-0 }} |
|||
* {{Cite book |last=Deur |first=Douglas |url=https://www.dotycoyote.com/pdfs/sources/deur_huckleberry_mountain.pdfhUKEwj0yJXNg7SEAxWN38kDHbdPANgQFnoECA8QAQ&usg=AOvVaw0Im_COo0GI2ZfZDS-nrIZO |title=Huckleberry Mountain Traditional-Use Study |date=2002b |language=En |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929142026/https://www.dotycoyote.com/pdfs/sources/deur_huckleberry_mountain.pdf |archive-date=2020-09-29 |url-status=live}} |
|||
* {{cite book |last=Gatschet |first=Albert S. |series=Contributions to North American Ethnology. Vol. 2, Part I |url=https://archive.org/details/cihm_52744 |title=The Klamath Indians of Southwestern Oregon |publisher=[[United States Government Printing Office]] |location=Washington, D.C. |author-link=Albert Samuel Gatschet |year=1890|isbn=978-0-665-52744-9 }} |
|||
* {{Cite book |last=Hale |first=Horatio |url=https://archive.org/details/Ethnographyphil00Hale |title=Ethnography and Philology |date=1846 |publisher=C. Sherman |location=Philadelphia |author-link=Horatio Hale}} |
|||
* {{Cite book |last=McClane |first=James |url=https://archive.org/details/annualreportofco188900unitrich/ |title=Eighty-Fifth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to the Secretary of the Interior |date=1889 |publisher=[[United States Government Publishing Office|Government Printing Office]] |location=Washington D.C. |pages=269–270 |chapter=Report of Grande Ronde Agency}} |
|||
* {{Cite book |last1=Minor |first1=Rick |url=https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=6ae554c1f390b6c23fc6c1c17c4c2e251b39437c |title=Cultural Resource Overview of Willamette National Forest, Western Oregon |last2=Pecor |first2=Aubrey |publisher=[[University of Oregon]] |year=1977 |series=University of Oregon Anthropological Papers |location=Eugene, OR |language=En |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240218023338/https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=6ae554c1f390b6c23fc6c1c17c4c2e251b39437c |archive-date=2024-02-18 |url-status=live |issue=12}} |
|||
* {{Cite book |last=Powell |first=John Wesley |author-link=John Wesley Powell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hHOozwEACAAJ |title=Indian Linguistic Families of America: North of Mexico |date=1891 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |isbn=978-0-598-28444-0 |location=Washington, D. C. |language=en}} |
|||
* {{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/coyotewasgoingth0000unse |title=Coyote was going there: Indian literature of the Oregon country |date=1977 |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |isbn=978-0-295-95441-7 |editor-last=Ramsey |editor-first=Jarold |location=Seattle & London}} |
|||
* {{citation |last=Spier |first=Leslie |editor-last=Kroeber |editor-first=Alfred L. |editor-link=Alfred Kroeber |editor-last2=Lowie |editor-first2=Robert |title=Klamath Ethnography |publisher=University of California Press |author-link=Leslie Spier |location=Berkeley |year=1930 |url=http://dpg.lib.berkeley.edu/webdb/anthpubs/search?all=&volume=30&journal=1&item=1}} |
|||
* {{Cite book |last1=Zenk |first1=Henry B. |title=Plateau |last2=Rigsby |first2=Bruce |date=1998 |publisher=[[United States Government Printing Office]] |editor-last=Sturtevant |editor-first=William C. |editor-link=William C. Sturtevant |series=Handbook of North American Indians |volume=12 |location=Washington D.C. |pages=439–445 |chapter=Molala |author-link2=Bruce Rigsby}} |
|||
===Manuscripts=== |
|||
* {{Cite book |last=Boas |first=Franz |title=[Molala fieldnotes] |date=1890 |publisher=[[National Anthropological Archives]] |series=Manuscript No. 999 |location=Washington D.C. |author-link=Franz Boas}} |
|||
* {{Cite book |last=Gatschet |first=Albert S. |title=[Three Molale texts with interlinear English translations, from informant Stephen Savage, Grande Ronde Reserve, Oreg., Dec. 1877. Incl.: "Marriage Ceremonies"; "Myth or the Coyote"; and, "Molale tribe raided by the Cayuse". Texts copied by Gatschet.] |date=1877b |publisher=National Anthropological Archives |series=Manuscript No. 998 |location=Washington D.C. |author-link=Albert Samuel Gatschet}} |
|||
* {{Cite book |last=Jacobs |first=Melville |url=https://archiveswest.orbiscascade.org/ark:80444/xv95437 |title=[Tualatin and Santiam Kalapuyan linguistic and ethnographic notes.] |date=1936 |location=University of Washington |author-link=Melville Jacobs}} |
|||
===Maps=== |
|||
* {{Cite book |last1=Gibbs |first1=George |url=https://catalog.archives.gov/id/102278782 |title=Sketch of the Wallamette Valley, showing the purchases and reservations made by the Board of Commissioners, appointed to treat with the Indians of Oregon. April and May 1851 |last2=Starling |first2=Edward A. |date=May 1851 |publisher=[[Bureau of Indian Affairs]] |location=Washington, D.C. |author-link=George Gibbs (ethnologist) |access-date=2024-02-18}} |
|||
===Newspapers=== |
|||
* {{Cite news |date=1857-09-26 |editor-last=Adams |editor-first=Williams L. |title=[Letter from Molalla, September 23, 1857.] |url=https://oregonnews.uoregon.edu/lccn/sn83025129/1857-09-26/ed-1/seq-2/ |access-date=2024-02-19 |work=Oregon Argus |location=Oregon City, OR |page=2}} |
|||
* {{Cite news |date=1870-11-25 |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=Mart V. |title=State News |work=States Rights Democrat |location=Albany, OR |page=2}} |
|||
* {{Cite news |date=1870-04-15 |editor-last=Clarke |editor-first=Samuel A. |editor-link=Samuel Asahel Clarke |title=An Indian Tragedy |work=Weekly Oregon Statesman |location=Salem, OR |page=2}} |
|||
* {{Cite news |date=1914-09-13 |editor-last=Collins |editor-first=Robert E. |title=Newport |work=Lincoln County Reader |location=Toledo, OR |page=1}} |
|||
* {{Cite news |date=1848-06-24 |editor-last=Curry |editor-first=George L. |editor-link=George Law Curry |title=Indian Depredations, ETC. |url=https://oregonnews.uoregon.edu/lccn/sn84022661/1848-06-24/ed-1/seq-2/ |access-date=2024-02-19 |work=Oregon Free Press |location=Oregon City, OR |page=2 |volume=1 |issue=12}} |
|||
* {{Cite news |date=1886-11-05 |editor-last=Hendricks |editor-first=R. J.|title=Mill Creek Falls|work=[[Statesman Journal]] |location=Salem, OR |page=2 |volume=19 |issue=189}} |
|||
* {{Cite news |date=1915-04-08 |editor-last=Hendricks |editor-first=R. J. |title=Molalla |work=[[Statesman Journal]] |page=6 |location=Salem, OR }} |
|||
* {{Cite news |last=Hunsacker |first=Thomas H. |date=1917-03-03 |editor-last=Shelton |editor-first=J. E. |title=A Tale of Pioneer Days |work=[[The Register-Guard|The Eugene Guard]] |location=Eugene, OR |page=8 |volume=52 |issue=63}} |
|||
* {{Cite news |date=1913-08-10 |year=1913a |editor-last=Jackson |editor-first=Sam |editor-link=Sam Jackson (publisher) |title=Last of Molallas, a contented farmer |work=[[The Oregon Journal|The Oregon Daily Journal]] |page=7 |location=Portland, OR |volume=10 |issue=18}} |
|||
* {{Cite news |date=1913-09-21 |year=1913b |editor-last=Jackson |editor-first=Sam |editor-link=Sam Jackson (publisher) |title=New 'Iron Horse' too much for 'Old Buck,' Pioneer of Molalla |work=[[The Oregon Journal|The Oregon Daily Journal]] |page=10 |location=Portland, OR |volume=10 |issue=24}} |
|||
* {{Cite news |date=1913-11-23 |year=1913c |editor-last=Jackson |editor-first=Sam |editor-link=Sam Jackson (publisher) |title=Harry Clark held for death of Indian Henry |work=[[The Oregon Journal|The Oregon Daily Journal]] |page=1 |location=Portland, OR |volume=10 |issue=33}} |
|||
* {{Cite news |date=1914-01-16 |year=1914a |editor-last=Jackson |editor-first=Sam |editor-link=Sam Jackson (publisher) |title="Indian Harry" is found not guilty |work=[[The Oregon Journal|The Oregon Daily Journal]] |page=2 |location=Portland, OR |volume=12 |issue=269}} |
|||
* {{Cite news |date=1919-09-04 |editor-last=Jackson |editor-first=Sam |editor-link=Sam Jackson (publisher) |title=Heap Big Chief Lead Braves to Hop Yards |work=[[The Oregon Journal|The Oregon Daily Journal]] |page=6 |location=Portland, OR |volume=18 |issue=154}} |
|||
* {{Cite news |date=1931-08-18 |editor-last=Putnam |editor-first=George |title=Indian Relics Kronberg Home Are Fine Show |work=[[Statesman Journal|The Capital Journal]] |location=Salem, OR |page=4}} |
|||
* {{Cite news |date=1851-05-15 |editor-last=Schnebly |editor-first=D. J. |title=Treaties 5 and 6 |url=https://oregonnews.uoregon.edu/lccn/sn84022662/1851-05-15/ed-1/seq-2/ |access-date=2024-02-19 |work=[[Oregon Spectator]] |location=Oregon City, OR |page=2 |volume=5}} |
|||
* {{Cite news |date=1848-03-23 |editor-last=T'Vault |editor-first=William G. |editor-link=William G. T'Vault |title=Willamette Indian Relations |url=https://oregonnews.uoregon.edu/lccn/sn84022662/1848-03-23/ed-1/seq-2/ |access-date=2024-02-19 |work=[[Oregon Spectator]] |page=2 |location=Oregon City, OR |volume=3}} |
|||
* {{Cite news |date=1913-09-24 |editor-last=Taber |editor-first=Graham P. |title=Chief Henry Yelkis is believed murdered|work=[[Statesman Journal|The Capital Journal]] |location=Salem, OR |page=4}} |
|||
===Theses=== |
|||
* {{Cite thesis |last=Pharris |first=Nicholas J. |url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/handle/2027.42/125859 |title=Winuunsi Tm Talapaas: A Grammar of the Molalla Language |date=2006 |publisher=[[University of Michigan]] |location=Ann Arbor, MI|hdl=2027.42/125859 |type=Thesis }} |
|||
* {{Cite book |last=Rigsby |first=Bruce |title=Linguistic relations in the Southern Plateau |publisher=[[University of Oregon]] |year=1965 |location=Eugene, OR |author-link=Bruce Rigsby}} |
|||
===Websites=== |
|||
* {{Cite web |last=CTSI |title=The Early Treaty Making Period of 1851 |url=https://www.ctsi.nsn.us/the-early-treaty-making-period-of-1851/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231130103009/https://www.ctsi.nsn.us/the-early-treaty-making-period-of-1851/ |archive-date=2023-11-30 |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=www.ctsi.nsn.us |publisher=[[Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians]]}} |
|||
* {{Cite web |last=Jette |first=Melinda |date=2014 |title=Kalapuya Treaty of 1855 |url=https://www.oregonencyclopedia.org/articles/kalapuya_treaty/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231213154405/https://www.oregonencyclopedia.org/articles/kalapuya_treaty/ |archive-date=2023-12-13 |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=www.oregonencyclopedia.org |publisher=[[Oregon Historical Society]] |language=en}} |
|||
* {{Cite web |last=Lewis |first=David G. |date=2014 |title=Willamette Valley Treaties |url=https://www.oregonencyclopedia.org/articles/willamette_valley_treaties/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110043750/https://www.oregonencyclopedia.org/articles/willamette_valley_treaties/ |archive-date=2023-11-10 |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=Oregon Encyclopedia |publisher=[[Oregon Historical Society]] |language=en}} |
|||
* {{cite web |url=https://ndnhistoryresearch.com/2017/12/30/the-battle-of-abiqua-second-battle-of-the-willamette-valley/|title=The Battle of Abiqua, Second Battle of the Willamette Valley|first1=David G.|last1=Lewis|publisher=Ethnohistory Research, LLC|date=December 30, 2017|access-date=May 14, 2019}} |
|||
* {{Cite web |last=NLA |date=2005 |title=Molale (Molalla) |url=https://www.native-languages.org/molale.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122174114/https://www.native-languages.org/molale.htm |archive-date=2023-01-22 |access-date=2024-02-17 |website=Native Languages of the Americas}} |
|||
* {{Cite web |last=Turner |first=Kenan |date=2017-02-24 |title=Huckleberry Mountain Serves Indigenous for Thousands of Years |url=https://www.ijpr.org/show/as-it-was/2017-02-24/huckleberry-mountain-serves-indigenous-for-thousands-of-years |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031133843/https://www.ijpr.org/show/as-it-was/2017-02-24/huckleberry-mountain-serves-indigenous-for-thousands-of-years |archive-date=2020-10-31 |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=Jefferson Public Radio |language=en}} |
|||
==References== |
|||
{{reflist}} |
|||
{{Oregon Native History}} |
{{Oregon Native History}} |
Latest revision as of 22:38, 20 April 2024
The Molala are a Native American people of Oregon that originally resided in the Western Cascades. There are few recorded sources about the Molala, the majority being unpublished manuscripts. This assortment includes the works of Albert S. Gatschet,[1] Franz Boas,[2] Leo J. Frachtenberg, Philip Drucker, Melville Jacobs,[3] and Leslie Spier.[4]
Descendants of the Molala reside on the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon, Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians, and the Klamath Tribes.[5] In the 1950s 141 of the 882 Grand Ronde Reservation members claimed Molala descent.
Origin of name[edit]
The designation Molala is considered to have originated from the Clackamas muláliš.[2][6] Variants in written literature include Molalla,[7][8] Molallie,[9] Mólale,[10] Molále,[10] Molele,[11] Moolalle.[12] Related terms used by neighboring indigenous included mólališ by the Wasco and Tenino,[13] and mulé•lis by the Kalapuyans.[3] The Tenino additionally referred to the Molalas as łytilpam and táytilpam,[13] likely borrowed by the Cayuse as tlĭ-tŭn-pŭm.[14] The Molalas were called kúikni by the Klamath.[15]
Homeland[edit]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Lake_and_Forest%2C_Umpqua_National_Forest_%2835681931993%29.jpg/330px-Lake_and_Forest%2C_Umpqua_National_Forest_%2835681931993%29.jpg)
Molala territory once stretched across the Western Cascades; from Mount Hood and the Molalla River in the north to the Rogue headwaters in the south. Dense forests of western hemlock, Douglas fir, and western red cedar inundated the region. Fire was utilized by the Molala to create openings in these dense stands for preferred food resources.[4]
In his 1846 work Hale placed the Molala as largely between the Deschutes River and the Eastern Cascades.[16] In 1891 John Wesley Powell considered the Molala to have once "occupied a belt of mountain country south of the Columbia River, chiefly about Mounts Hood and Jefferson."[17]
Tygh Valley origin hypothesis[edit]
In 1928 James Teit presented the idea that the Molala once resided in Tygh Valley. He claimed pressure from the Northern Paiute forced the Molala to relocate to the Western Cascades.[18] Joel V. Berreman accepted Teit's hypothesis and in 1937 expanded upon it.[19]
The three informants used by Teit were appraised as being invalid by other scholars. None were descendants or related to the Molala, Northern Paiute, or the Tenino. According to George Murdock this didn't "constitute an adequate basis for a definitive reconstruction of the history" of these native societies.[20]
In the 1930s Tenino informants of the Warm Springs Reservation told Murdock that Molalas once had a winter village in Tygh Valley. Large quantities of Sockeye salmon and Columbia River redband trout were gathered every spring along the Deschutes River at Sherars Falls. According to Murdock, sometime in the early 19th century, coveting this bountiful resource, Tenino warriors forced the Molala to flee to the western Cascades.[21]
During the 1960s, Rigsby interviewed several informants at the Warm Springs Reservation to match Murdock's narrative. No one recalled stories of conflict with the Molala, or of their supposed eviction from Tygh Valley. One informant stated that after the fish runs ended in the Willamette Valley, certain Molala would travel to Sherars Falls to continue fishing.[22]
After a decade of work among the Wascos and Sahaptins of Warm Springs, David H. French determined that Sahaptin inhabitation of Tygh Valley and utilization of the Deschutes Watershed predated the 19th century. Both French and Rigsby concluded the regional resources were jointly used by Sahaptin speakers, Wasco-Wishram peoples, and the Northern Paiute. The Molala perhaps visited but didn't permanently inhabit the area during the 19th century.[23]
Culture[edit]
Society[edit]
Molala society was centered upon winter villages. Usually these were composed of a single extended family and placed in low-elevation locations. Winter homesteads were made of red cedar and western hemlock planks and semi-subterranean. Summer homes were unexcavated and composed of either thatch or bark.[24]
When seasonal resources became available the family would separate into smaller groups to exploit and gather them. Due to these population trends leadership among the Molala was in turn quite decentralized, localized, and task-orientated. The wealthiest individuals of a village were referred to as yaʔqánt by the Molala or simply chiefs by settlers. Assistance to relatives was the primary source of yaʔqánt influence. Ownership of slaves and horses, along with animal hides and dentalium crafts, were the primary sources of wealth in Molala society.[25]
Subdivisions[edit]
The Molala were initially separated into two groups by scholars, although evidence of a third division exists. However, little is recorded of the linguistic and cultural diversity among the Molala peoples.[26] The three reported groupings are the Southern Molala, the Upper Santiam Molala, and the Northern Molala.[27]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Wizard_Island_in_Crater_Lake_National_Park_-_Oregon_2008.jpg/290px-Wizard_Island_in_Crater_Lake_National_Park_-_Oregon_2008.jpg)
The Southern Molala inhabited the headwaters of the Rogue and Umpqua Rivers along the bases of Crater Lake and Mount McLoughlin. They were called tulǽyaŋsi, far-off people, by the Northern Molala,[28] while the Klamath referred to them as čakġe•nkni•, "Serviceberry-Area-People"[29][30][27] or "People of the Serviceberry Tract."[8]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/North_Santiam_River_above_dam.jpg/290px-North_Santiam_River_above_dam.jpg)
Molala of the Santiam River are called the "Upper Santiam Molala" by ethnologists to differentiate them from the neighboring Santiam Kalapuyans. Franz Boas recorded čimbú•ihe as a native settlement outside Albany,[2] which was later reported by Albert S. Gatschet as a Molala village located on the Santiam headwaters.[31][27]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Molalla_River_%2822308261776%29.jpg/290px-Molalla_River_%2822308261776%29.jpg)
The Northern Molala principally were concentrated in the Molalla River watershed. The only recorded Northern Molala autonym is lá•ti•wi, used to mean both "Molala person" and "Molala people".[27]
Diet[edit]
Roosevelt elk and Black-tailed deer were "economically the most important resource exploited" by the Molala peoples.[32] While they employed pitfalls and snares, most big game hunting was accomplished by bow and arrow. Hunting dogs were trained to pursue game as well. Klamath informants told Spier that Molala dogs were small, "with short legs, the hind legs crooked. They were short-haired, had erect ears, short faces, with sometimes black marks on the upper eyelids..."[33] A number of other animals were hunted, not for sustenance but for feathers or fur, such as the bald eagle, coyotes, and bobcats. Steelhead and Chinook salmon were captured by either basket traps or harpoons. Once gathered the meat was dried and stored for future consumption.
A number of plant resources were utilized seasonally by the Molala. In their western territories were prairies of camas bulbs, an important caloric source. Found in the drier prairies, hazelnuts and tarweed seeds were gathered in the summer and autumn. Camas bulbs were baked in earth ovens, dried, blended with hazelnuts, and stored in sacks. To east, in the higher elevations of the Cascades, Mountain Huckleberries were collected in the late summer; alongside the Cascade Blueberry, the Oval-leaf Huckleberry, and the Red Huckleberry. After being gathered huckleberries would be dried.
Located nearby Crater Lake, Huckleberry Mountain was the "single-most important berry-gathering area" for the Southern Molala and Klamath.[34][35] Edible berries in the vicinity include the Littleleaf Huckleberry, Western Blueberry, Manzanita Berry, Wild Strawberry, Black Twinberry, Evergreen Blackberry, Blackcap Raspberry, Thimbleberry, Blue Elderberry, Red Elderberry, Wax Currant, and Rose hips from the local Wild Rose.[36][37]
Manufacturerd items[edit]
Molala made composite bows from Pacific Yew and sinew.[38]
Language[edit]
The Molala language is extinct. Currently it is included among the Plateau Penutian language family, with Klamath and Sahaptin being considered the closest related.[39][40]
Neighoring societies[edit]
Prior to the introduction of horses in the 1820s-1830s,[41] Molala contact with their neighbors appears to have been slight. They resided between several divergent cultural areas which were shaped by distinct ecological regions. Among the bordering peoples were the Kalapuya to west in the Willamette Valley, the Upper Chinookans to north on the Columbia River, and the Klamath to the southeast.
Upper Chinookan crafted canoes were particularly sought after by the Northern Molala. Head flattening was practiced to bolster the desirability of their women to the Chinookans.[42][43] While some intermarriage with Kalapuyans was reported, the Molala attacked them for slaves.[44] The Klamath people were intimately close to the Molala,[45] enough to "suggest contact between these two groups throughout the entire area of Molala occupation."[41] The Southern Molala exchanged buckskins in return for Klamath crafted beads and wocus seeds.[46]
Groups of armed men called the haylúnci, "upstreamers", occasionally attacked Molala settlements for slaves [25] These slavers were from the Cayuse and Nez Perce peoples.[47] Gatschet reported the last known Cayuse raid occurred in the late 1820s.[1] A Molala man of social prominence was killed in the attack. A Clackamas man served as an intermediary between the Molala and the Cayuse raiders to arrange for a battle. In the ensuing two day skirmish the Molalas considered themselves victorious.[48][49]
Mythology[edit]
Only a few Molala myths remain extant, recorded by ethnographers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[50] Boas recounts a story told by the Molala of the world once being entirely covered in water. As the world ocean receded, Mount Hood became exposed first and latter the Willamette Valley.[2]
A prominent story is the creation of the Molala people, told by Stephen Savage to Gatschet in 1877.[1] One day near Mount Hood, Coyote encountered Grizzly Bear, who challenged them to a duel. Rather than combat, Coyotes suggests on seeing who could eat the most hot stones. However, instead of ingesting rocks, Coyote ate wild strawberries. After eating five hot stones Grizzly Bear died and Coyote studied the corpse:
He skinned Grizzly, then began cutting him up; he scattered his body in little pieces all over. Then to the Molala country he threw the heart. He said, "Now the Molala will be good hunters: they will all be good men, thinking and studying about hunting deer. They will think all the time they are on a hunt."[51][8][1]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/MtHood_Sunrise.jpg/260px-MtHood_Sunrise.jpg)
History[edit]
Tensions with settlers[edit]
In late March 1848, settlers burnt down a Molala headman's household who was out hunting. William T'Vault admonished the violence for creating tension with the natives of the Willamette Valley. The violence was in retaliation for a visiting Klamath having stolen "some article of trifling value..."[52]
During the Spring 1848, eighty Klamath people arrived in contemporary Clackamas county. This occurred during the ongoing Cayuse War, which provoked settler paranoia of indigenous violence. The Klamath were asked to leave, but they refused. Local Molala headman Crooked Finger protected the right for Klamath to reside among their Molala relatives. After a series of thefts, an armed group of settlers killed several Klamath and forced them to flee eastwards into the Cascade Mountains.[53] One late 19th century account misremembered the violence as between settlers and Molala, rather than the Klamath.[54]
During June 1848 a group of Molala or Klamath were suspected of stealing clothing and a horse. A militia was formed and pursued the group of natives, who abandoned the settler's horse and two horses of their own.[55]
Treaty negotiations[edit]
In 1850 Anson Dart was appointed Oregon Superintendent of Indian Affairs. Federal orders were for the various native peoples residing west of Cascades to be forcibly relocated to reservations established to the east of the mountains. Dart started negotiations with the various Willamette Valley natives in Spring 1851 at Champoeg. He was unable to get anyone to agree to removal into Eastern Oregon. The general lack of knowledge of available food resources in the unfamiliar region caused much of the protest.[56]
Going against his initial orders, Dart eventually acquiesced to establishing reservations in the Willamette Valley.[57] Among the Treaties drafted by Dart were two for the Molala. In exchange for yielding much of their territory, on 6 May, the Northern Molala agreed to payments of goods, cash, and a reservation centered on the Molalla River eastwards to the Cascades. On the following day the Upper Santiam Molala agreed to similar terms, with a reservation going from Mt. Jefferson westward to the Santiam River.[58][12] There were 121[50] or 123[59] Molalas total between the two groups.
Because these agreements allowed for the Kalapuyans and Molala to retain portions of the Willamette Valley, settlers protested the Dart Treaties. Their complaints reached the US Congress, which subsequently refused to approve the Treaties.[60][57] Dart resigned in consequence, leaving the issue of Molala sovereignty unresolved.[58]
Joel Palmer was the next Superintendent who negotiated a series of Treaties with Oregon Natives that were largely approved by the Federal Government. At Dayton in January 1855 he oversaw a series of negotiations that resulted in the Willamette Valley Treaty. Among others, the Northern and Upper Santiam Molala agreed to abandon the Willamette Valley in favor of a location selected by Palmer.[61] The agreement was ratified by Congress in March 1855.
Reservation[edit]
In Autumn 1855 "the last Indian scare of any importance" in the Willamette Valley occurred. Fears arose that a force of Klamath were incoming to sack settler homesteads. After a day however a group of Molalas informed the fearful settlers no conflict with the Klamath was imminent.[62]
During the winter of 1855-1856 the Northern Molala and Upper Santiam Molala were forced to relocate to the newly established Grand Ronde Reservation.[63] In 1889 there were reportedly 31 Molalas residing on the Grand Ronde Reservation.[9]
In 1857, settlers located around Molalla complained about the nearby Grand Ronde Reservation:
"[Natives are] constantly annoying the settlers by passing to and fro over our premises, leaving fences down, and occasionally committing petit larcenies...The fact is, these Indians are a nuisance..."[64]
Reportedly in November 1870 an outbreak of smallpox spread among the Molala residing in Clackamas County.[65]
To avoid the settler violence, some Southern Molala moved onto the Klamath Reservation during the mid-19th century.[66][67] In April 1870, a Molala resident of the Klamath Reservation named Spike attempted to kill three people, succeeding in murdering one Klamath. He was captured and presented to Agency officials. After a short trial Spike was executed by hanging.[68] In 1881 there 55 Molalas living among the Klamath.[50]
At the opening ceremonies of the 1915 Siletz Fair, a Molala headman named John Williams delivered an address that was described by the Lincoln County Leader as "eloquent, patriotic and impressive."[69] The newspaper continued to detail Williams' speech:
"He was proud of his Indian blood and urged his people to stand by their race. Fifty years of education and training has made the Indians capable of citizenship. He thought the future was bright with hope for the Indians. He urged his people to seize the opportunities that surround them and make the most of them."[69]
In September 1919 Williams led a group of 60 Siletz residents to Independence. There, they were joined by 50 Grand Ronde members, and the group participated in the annual hop harvest.[70]
Henry Yelkes was one of the last Molala yaʔqánt. He maintained a homestead on the Northern fork of the Molalla River and was held in high regard by neighboring settlers.[71][72] In September 1913, during festivities in the town of Molalla, Yelkes was the guest of honor. The event was held to celebrate the opening of passenger rail service by the Portland, Eugene & Eastern Railway Company. Before the assembled crowds, the otherwise reserved Yelkes spoke:
"I am the last of the Molalla Indians. They named this place from our tribe. When I was a boy there were many of my people here Now they are all gone. My hat of deerskin and flicker feathers belonged to my grandfather. But he and the old times are gone."[73]
In September 1913 Yelkes was found dead with head injuries.[74] Two months later in November, a Clackamas County grand jury issued a warrant for Harry Clark, a mixed race native.[75] The coroner upon examination of Yelkes' body felt he died from alcohol. In the subsequent trial the jury concluded there was a lack of evidence tying Clark to the death of Yelkes. Clark was released in January 1914.[76]
Legacy[edit]
A private collection of Molala artifacts located in Mt Angel in 1931 included 535 flint arrowheads, an 8 inch tomahawk head, and an assortment of beadwork.[77]
As of 2008, Molala produced beaded moccasins and woven baskets were on display at the British Museum, the Burke and Whatcom Museums of Washington, and the Museum of the Oregon Territory of Oregon City, Oregon.[78]
Notable Molala[edit]
- Molala Kate Chantal (c. 1844–1938), ethnographic informant and among the last speakers of Molala
- Victoria Wishikin Howard (c. 1865–1930), storyteller
Bibliography[edit]
Articles[edit]
- Coan, C. F. (1921). "The First Stage of the Federal Indian Policy in the Pacific Northwest, 1849-1852". The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society. 22 (1). Portland, OR: Oregon Historical Society: 46–89. ISSN 2153-1706. JSTOR 20610175 – via JSTOR.
- Deur, Douglas (2002a). "A Most Sacred Place: The Significance of Crater Lake among the Indians of Southern Oregon". Oregon Historical Quarterly. 103 (1): 18–49. ISSN 0030-4727. JSTOR 20615207 – via JSTOR.
- Gatschet, Albert S. (1877a). "Indian Languages of the Pacific States and Territories". Magazine of American History. 1 (3): 145–166 – via Google Books.
- Jacobs, Meville (1959). Voegelin, Charles F. (ed.). "Clackamas Chinook Texts Part 2". International Journal of American Linguistics. 25 (2). Indiana University – via Project MUSE.
- Johnson, Oscar (1999). "The Molalla: a nation of good hunters". Smoke Signals. Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon. Archived from the original on 2020-01-16.
- MacKey, Harold (1972). "New Light on the Molala Indians". Oregon Historical Quarterly. 73 (1): 63–65. JSTOR 20613280 – via JSTOR.
- Minto, John (1903). "Minto Pass: Its History, and an Indian Tradition". The Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society. 4 (3): 241–250. JSTOR 20609580 – via JSTOR.
- Murdock, George (1938). "'Notes on the Tenino, Molala, and Paiute of Oregon' in Tribal Distribution in Eastern Oregon and Adjacent Regions". American Anthropologist. 40 (3): 395–402. JSTOR 662038 – via JSTOR.
- Spores, Ronald (1993). "Too Small a Place: The Removal of the Willamette Valley Indians, 1850-1856". American Indian Quarterly. 17 (2): 171–191. doi:10.2307/1185526. ISSN 0095-182X. JSTOR 1185526 – via JSTOR.
- Rigsby, Bruce (Spring 1969). Sprague, Roderick; Goss, James A. (eds.). "The Waiilatpuan Problem: More on Cayuse-Molala Relatability". Journal of Northwest Anthropology. 3 (2): 68–146 – via Google Books.
- Teit, James H. (1928). Boas, Franz (ed.). "The Middle Columbia Salish". University of Washington Publications in Anthropology. 2 (4). Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press: 83–128 – via University of Washington.
Books[edit]
- Berreman, Joel V. (1937). Spier, Leslie (ed.). Tribal Distribution in Oregon. Memoirs of American Anthropological Association. Menasha, WI: American Anthropological Association. Archived from the original on 2020-07-10.
- Chapman, Judith S.; Ray, Lois E. H. (2008). Molalla. Images of America. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7385-5613-0.
- Deur, Douglas (2002b). Huckleberry Mountain Traditional-Use Study. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-09-29.
- Gatschet, Albert S. (1890). The Klamath Indians of Southwestern Oregon. Contributions to North American Ethnology. Vol. 2, Part I. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office. ISBN 978-0-665-52744-9.
- Hale, Horatio (1846). Ethnography and Philology. Philadelphia: C. Sherman.
- McClane, James (1889). "Report of Grande Ronde Agency". Eighty-Fifth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs to the Secretary of the Interior. Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office. pp. 269–270.
- Minor, Rick; Pecor, Aubrey (1977). Cultural Resource Overview of Willamette National Forest, Western Oregon. University of Oregon Anthropological Papers. Eugene, OR: University of Oregon. Archived from the original on 2024-02-18.
- Powell, John Wesley (1891). Indian Linguistic Families of America: North of Mexico. Washington, D. C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. ISBN 978-0-598-28444-0.
- Ramsey, Jarold, ed. (1977). Coyote was going there: Indian literature of the Oregon country. Seattle & London: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-95441-7.
- Spier, Leslie (1930), Kroeber, Alfred L.; Lowie, Robert (eds.), Klamath Ethnography, Berkeley: University of California Press
- Zenk, Henry B.; Rigsby, Bruce (1998). "Molala". In Sturtevant, William C. (ed.). Plateau. Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 12. Washington D.C.: United States Government Printing Office. pp. 439–445.
Manuscripts[edit]
- Boas, Franz (1890). [Molala fieldnotes]. Manuscript No. 999. Washington D.C.: National Anthropological Archives.
- Gatschet, Albert S. (1877b). [Three Molale texts with interlinear English translations, from informant Stephen Savage, Grande Ronde Reserve, Oreg., Dec. 1877. Incl.: "Marriage Ceremonies"; "Myth or the Coyote"; and, "Molale tribe raided by the Cayuse". Texts copied by Gatschet.] Manuscript No. 998. Washington D.C.: National Anthropological Archives.
- Jacobs, Melville (1936). [Tualatin and Santiam Kalapuyan linguistic and ethnographic notes.]. University of Washington.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Maps[edit]
- Gibbs, George; Starling, Edward A. (May 1851). Sketch of the Wallamette Valley, showing the purchases and reservations made by the Board of Commissioners, appointed to treat with the Indians of Oregon. April and May 1851. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Indian Affairs. Retrieved 2024-02-18.
Newspapers[edit]
- Adams, Williams L., ed. (1857-09-26). "[Letter from Molalla, September 23, 1857.]". Oregon Argus. Oregon City, OR. p. 2. Retrieved 2024-02-19.
- Brown, Mart V., ed. (1870-11-25). "State News". States Rights Democrat. Albany, OR. p. 2.
- Clarke, Samuel A., ed. (1870-04-15). "An Indian Tragedy". Weekly Oregon Statesman. Salem, OR. p. 2.
- Collins, Robert E., ed. (1914-09-13). "Newport". Lincoln County Reader. Toledo, OR. p. 1.
- Curry, George L., ed. (1848-06-24). "Indian Depredations, ETC". Oregon Free Press. Vol. 1, no. 12. Oregon City, OR. p. 2. Retrieved 2024-02-19.
- Hendricks, R. J., ed. (1886-11-05). "Mill Creek Falls". Statesman Journal. Vol. 19, no. 189. Salem, OR. p. 2.
- Hendricks, R. J., ed. (1915-04-08). "Molalla". Statesman Journal. Salem, OR. p. 6.
- Hunsacker, Thomas H. (1917-03-03). Shelton, J. E. (ed.). "A Tale of Pioneer Days". The Eugene Guard. Vol. 52, no. 63. Eugene, OR. p. 8.
- Jackson, Sam, ed. (1913-08-10). "Last of Molallas, a contented farmer". The Oregon Daily Journal. Vol. 10, no. 18. Portland, OR. p. 7.
- Jackson, Sam, ed. (1913-09-21). "New 'Iron Horse' too much for 'Old Buck,' Pioneer of Molalla". The Oregon Daily Journal. Vol. 10, no. 24. Portland, OR. p. 10.
- Jackson, Sam, ed. (1913-11-23). "Harry Clark held for death of Indian Henry". The Oregon Daily Journal. Vol. 10, no. 33. Portland, OR. p. 1.
- Jackson, Sam, ed. (1914-01-16). ""Indian Harry" is found not guilty". The Oregon Daily Journal. Vol. 12, no. 269. Portland, OR. p. 2.
- Jackson, Sam, ed. (1919-09-04). "Heap Big Chief Lead Braves to Hop Yards". The Oregon Daily Journal. Vol. 18, no. 154. Portland, OR. p. 6.
- Putnam, George, ed. (1931-08-18). "Indian Relics Kronberg Home Are Fine Show". The Capital Journal. Salem, OR. p. 4.
- Schnebly, D. J., ed. (1851-05-15). "Treaties 5 and 6". Oregon Spectator. Vol. 5. Oregon City, OR. p. 2. Retrieved 2024-02-19.
- T'Vault, William G., ed. (1848-03-23). "Willamette Indian Relations". Oregon Spectator. Vol. 3. Oregon City, OR. p. 2. Retrieved 2024-02-19.
- Taber, Graham P., ed. (1913-09-24). "Chief Henry Yelkis is believed murdered". The Capital Journal. Salem, OR. p. 4.
Theses[edit]
- Pharris, Nicholas J. (2006). Winuunsi Tm Talapaas: A Grammar of the Molalla Language (Thesis). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. hdl:2027.42/125859.
- Rigsby, Bruce (1965). Linguistic relations in the Southern Plateau. Eugene, OR: University of Oregon.
Websites[edit]
- CTSI. "The Early Treaty Making Period of 1851". www.ctsi.nsn.us. Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians. Archived from the original on 2023-11-30. Retrieved 2024-02-18.
- Jette, Melinda (2014). "Kalapuya Treaty of 1855". www.oregonencyclopedia.org. Oregon Historical Society. Archived from the original on 2023-12-13. Retrieved 2024-02-18.
- Lewis, David G. (2014). "Willamette Valley Treaties". Oregon Encyclopedia. Oregon Historical Society. Archived from the original on 2023-11-10. Retrieved 2024-02-18.
- Lewis, David G. (December 30, 2017). "The Battle of Abiqua, Second Battle of the Willamette Valley". Ethnohistory Research, LLC. Retrieved May 14, 2019.
- NLA (2005). "Molale (Molalla)". Native Languages of the Americas. Archived from the original on 2023-01-22. Retrieved 2024-02-17.
- Turner, Kenan (2017-02-24). "Huckleberry Mountain Serves Indigenous for Thousands of Years". Jefferson Public Radio. Archived from the original on 2020-10-31. Retrieved 2024-02-18.
References[edit]
- ^ a b c d Gatschet 1877b.
- ^ a b c d Boas 1890.
- ^ a b Jacobs 1936.
- ^ a b Zenk & Rigsby 1998, p. 439.
- ^ Zenk & Rigsby 1998, pp. 444–445.
- ^ Jacobs 1959, p. 551.
- ^ Berreman 1937, p. 44.
- ^ a b c Johnson 1999.
- ^ a b McClane 1889.
- ^ a b Gatschet 1877a.
- ^ Hale 1846, p. 214.
- ^ a b Gibbs & Starling 1851.
- ^ a b Rigsby 1969, pp. 80–81.
- ^ Rigsby 1969, p. 134.
- ^ Gatschet 1890, p. 157.
- ^ Hale 1846, p. 197.
- ^ Powell 1891, p. 127.
- ^ Teit 1928, p. 100-101.
- ^ Berreman 1937, p. 44- 46.
- ^ Murdock 1938, p. 400.
- ^ Murdock 1938, pp. 396–398.
- ^ Rigsby 1969, p. 80.
- ^ Rigsby 1969, pp. 81–82.
- ^ Zenk & Rigsby 1998, pp. 441–442.
- ^ a b Zenk & Rigsby 1998, p. 443.
- ^ Minor & Pecor 1977, p. 80.
- ^ a b c d Zenk & Rigsby 1998, p. 445.
- ^ Rigsby 1969, p. 78.
- ^ Gatschet 1890, pp. 157, 426.
- ^ Spier 1930, p. 4.
- ^ Gatschet 1877, p. 363.
- ^ Zenk & Rigsby 1998, p. 440.
- ^ Spier 1930, p. 158.
- ^ Spier 1930, pp. 9, 160.
- ^ Deur 2002a, p. 30, 32.
- ^ Deur 2002b, p. 20-21.
- ^ Turner 2017.
- ^ Spier 1930, p. 194.
- ^ Pharris 2006, pp. 358–359.
- ^ NLA 2005.
- ^ a b Zenk & Rigsby, p. 440.
- ^ Zenk & Rigsby, pp. 439–440.
- ^ Spier 1930, p. 59.
- ^ Zenk & Rigsby, pp. 439, 443.
- ^ Spier 1930, p. 24.
- ^ Spier 1930, p. 41.
- ^ Rigsby 1965, p. 240.
- ^ MacKey 1972, pp. 64–65.
- ^ Minto 1903, p. 241.
- ^ a b c Zenk & Rigsby 1998, p. 444.
- ^ Ramsey 1977, p. 118.
- ^ T'Vault 1848.
- ^ Lewis 2017.
- ^ Hendricks 1886.
- ^ Curry 1848.
- ^ CTSI 2024.
- ^ a b Coan 1921, p. 56.
- ^ a b Lewis 2014.
- ^ Schnebly 1851.
- ^ Spores 1993, p. 178.
- ^ Spores 1993, pp. 181–183.
- ^ Hunsacker 1917.
- ^ Jette 2014.
- ^ Adams 1857.
- ^ Brown 1870.
- ^ Deur 2002a, p. 33.
- ^ Deur 2002b, p. 12.
- ^ Clarke 1870.
- ^ a b Collins 1914.
- ^ Jackson 1919.
- ^ Jackson 1913a.
- ^ Hendricks 1915.
- ^ Jackson 1913b.
- ^ Taber 1913.
- ^ Jackson 1913c.
- ^ Jackson 1914.
- ^ Putnam 1931.
- ^ Chapman & Ray 2008, p. 11.