Al-Aqsa Mosque: Difference between revisions

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In 1033, there was another earthquake, severely damaging the mosque. The [[Fatimid]] caliph [[Ali az-Zahir]], rebuilt and completely renovated the mosque between 1034-36. The number of naves was drastically reduced from fifteen to seven.<ref name="Nusseibeh"/> However, az-Zahir built the four arcades of the central hall and aisle, which presently serve as the foundation of the mosque. The central aisle was double the width of the other aisles and had a large gable roof, upon which the dome — made of wood — was constructed.<ref name="Elad"/>
In 1033, there was another earthquake, severely damaging the mosque. The [[Fatimid]] caliph [[Ali az-Zahir]], rebuilt and completely renovated the mosque between 1034-36. The number of naves was drastically reduced from fifteen to seven.<ref name="Nusseibeh"/> However, az-Zahir built the four arcades of the central hall and aisle, which presently serve as the foundation of the mosque. The central aisle was double the width of the other aisles and had a large gable roof, upon which the dome — made of wood — was constructed.<ref name="Elad"/>

{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; font-size: 85%; background:#c6dbf7; width:30em; max-width: 27%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" | "The Haram Area lies in the eastern part of the [[Jerusalem|city]]; and through the [[bazaar]] of this (quarter) you enter the Area by a great and beautiful gateway([[Dargah]]),... After passing this gateway, you have on the right two great colonnades ([[Riwaq]]), each of which has nine-and-twenty marble pillars, whose capitals and bases are of coloured marbles, and the joints are set in lead. Above the pillars rise arches, that are constructed, of masonry, without mortar or cement, and each arch is constructed of no more than five or six blocks of stone. These colonnades lead down to near the [[Maqsurah]] (an enclosure built near the centre of the qiblah wall).
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | '''[[Nasir Khusraw]]''''s description of mosque in 1047 C.E.(''[[Safarnama]]'', translated by Guy Le Strange) <ref>[http://homepages.luc.edu/~avande1/jerusalem/sources/nasir.htm The travels of Nasir-i-Khusrau to Jerusalem, 1047 C.E.]</ref>
|}


Jerusalem was captured by the [[Crusader]]s in 1099 during the [[First Crusade]]. Instead of destroying the mosque, the crusaders used the mosque — which they called "Solomon's Temple" — as a palace. In 1119, it was transformed into the headquarters for the [[Knights Templar|Templar Knights]]. During this period, the mosque underwent some structural changes, including the expansion of its northern porch, and the addition of an [[apse]] and a dividing wall. A new cloister and church were also constructed at the site, along with various other structures.<ref>{{cite book |last=Boas |first=Adrian |title=Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades: Society, Landscape and Art in the holy city under Frankish rule |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |page=91
Jerusalem was captured by the [[Crusader]]s in 1099 during the [[First Crusade]]. Instead of destroying the mosque, the crusaders used the mosque — which they called "Solomon's Temple" — as a palace. In 1119, it was transformed into the headquarters for the [[Knights Templar|Templar Knights]]. During this period, the mosque underwent some structural changes, including the expansion of its northern porch, and the addition of an [[apse]] and a dividing wall. A new cloister and church were also constructed at the site, along with various other structures.<ref>{{cite book |last=Boas |first=Adrian |title=Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades: Society, Landscape and Art in the holy city under Frankish rule |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |page=91

Revision as of 01:53, 26 September 2008

For other uses see al-Aqsa (disambiguation) or the Dome of the Rock
al-Aqsa Mosque
al-Masjid al-Aqsa
Eastern view of the al-Aqsa Mosque and the Fakhariyyah Minaret
Religion
AffiliationIslam
DistrictOld City
Ecclesiastical or organizational statusMosque
LeadershipWaqf
Location
LocationTemple Mount, Jerusalem
Geographic coordinates31°46′35″N 35°14′8″E / 31.77639°N 35.23556°E / 31.77639; 35.23556
Architecture
TypeMosque
StyleEarly Islamic
Groundbreaking685 CE (First construction)
1033 CE (Second construction)
Completed705 CE (First construction)
1035 CE (Second construction)
Specifications
Direction of façadenorth
Capacity5,000 (inside); 400,000 (precincts)[1]
LengthTemplate:M to ft
WidthTemplate:M to ft
Dome(s)1
Minaret(s)4
Minaret heightTemplate:M to ft
MaterialsLimestone (external walls, minaret, facade) stalactite (minaret), lead (dome), white marble (interior columns)

Al-Aqsa Mosque (lit: "the Farthest Mosque") (Arabic: المسجد الاقصى, [IPA /æl'mæsdʒɪd æl'ɑqsˁɑ/, al-Masjid al-Aqsaⓘ), also known as al-Aqsa, is an Islamic holy place in Jerusalem. The mosque itself forms part of the al-Haram ash-Sharif or "Sacred Noble Sanctuary", a site also known as the Temple Mount and considered the holiest site in Judaism, since it is believed to be where the Temple in Jerusalem once stood.[2][3] Widely considered, mainly by Sunni Islam, as the third holiest site in Islam, Muslims believe that prophet Muhammad was transported from the Sacred Mosque in Mecca to al-Aqsa Mosque during the Night Journey. Islamic tradition holds that Muhammad led prayers at this site before ascending to heaven.[4]

Al-Aqsa Mosque was originally a small prayer house built by the Rashidun caliph Umar, but was rebuilt and expanded by the Ummayad caliph Abd al-Malik and finished by his son al-Walid in 705 CE.[5] After an earthquake in 746, the mosque was completely destroyed and rebuilt by the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur in 754, and again rebuilt by his successor al-Mahdi in 780. Another earthquake destroyed most of al-Aqsa in 1033, but two years later the Fatimid caliph Ali az-Zahir built another mosque which has stood to the present-day. During the periodic renovations undertaken, the various ruling dynasties of the Islamic Caliphate constructed additions to the mosque and its precincts, such as its dome, facade, its minbar, minarets and the interior structure. When the Crusaders captured Jerusalem in 1099, they used the mosque as a palace and church, but its function as a mosque was restored after its recapture by Saladin. More renovations, repairs and additions were undertaken in the later centuries by the Ayyubids, Mamluks, Ottomans and Jordan. Today, the Old City of Jerusalem is under Israeli control, but the mosque remains under the autonomous administration of the Islamic waqf.

Etymology

Masjid al-Aqsa translates from Arabic into English as "the farthest mosque". Its name refers to a chapter of the Qu'ran called "The Night Journey" in which it is said that prophet Muhammad traveled from Mecca to "the farthest mosque", and then up to Heaven on a flying horse called al-Buraq al-Sharif.[1][6] "Farthest" as used in this content means the "farthest from Mecca."[7]

History

Pre-construction

Jewish tradition holds that the site upon which al-Aqsa Mosque was constructed originally housed the Temple of Jerusalem. Of the First Temple, known as the Temple of Solomon, its destruction is attributed to the Babylonians in 587 B.C., and there are no physical remains attesting to its presence or structure.[8] Building of the Second Temple began during the rule of the Persian king Cyrus the Great, but this temple was destroyed by the Roman Emperor (then general) Titus in 70 CE. Of it, the Western Wall, thought to be a remnant of this second temple's platform, is all that remains.[9] Emperor Justinian built a Christian church on the site in the 530s which was consecrated to the Virgin Mary by the name of "Church of Our Lady". The church was later destroyed by Khosrau II, the Sassanian empror in the early 7th century and left in ruins.[10]

Construction

The mosque along the southern wall of the Temple Mount

It is unknown exactly when the first construction of the al-Aqsa Mosque occurred and who ordered its construction, but it is certain that it was built in the early Ummayad period of rule in Palestine.

Although Islamic tradition holds that Umar built the mosque while surrounded by Muslim faithful, this tradition has been dismissed as legend by several Muslim and Western scholars. The reason is that the few historical records that documented these events by the Arabs or the Byzantines were seen as biased traditions meant either to glorify Umar's capture of Jerusalem or stir up Byzantine propaganda that God caused Umar's mosque collapse.[11] What is recorded by contemporary Muslim and Jewish sources is that the site was covered with garbage dumped there by Byzantine Christians, and that the two communities participated in cleaning it up, as Umar watched on, until the rock upon which the Temples of Jerusalem were said to have been erected, was revealed.[12]

Architectural historian K. A. C. Creswell, referring to a testimony by the Gallic monk Arculf in his pilgrimage to Palestine in 679-82, notes that it is possible that Umar erected a primitive quadrangular building for a capacity of 3,000 worshipers somewhere on the Haram ash-Sharif or Temple Mount. Arculf, however, visited Palestine during the reign of Mu'awiyah I, and it is possible that Mu'awiyah ordered the construction, not Umar. This latter claim is explicitly supported by the early Muslim scholar al-Muthannar bin Tahir.[11]

According to several Muslim scholars, including Mujir ad-Din, al-Suyuti, and al-Muqaddasi, the mosque was reconstructed and expanded by the caliph Abd al-Malik in 690 along with the Dome of the Rock.[13][11] Guy le Strange claims that Abd al-Malik used materials from the destroyed Church of Our Lady to build the mosque and points to possible evidence that substructures on the southeast corners of the mosque are remains of the church.[13] In contrast, Creswell, while referring to the Aphrodito Papyri, claims that Abd al-Malik's son, al-Walid I reconstructed the Aqsa Mosque over a period of six months to a year, sending workers from Damascus. Most Muslim and Western scholars agree that the mosque's reconstruction was started by Abd al-Malik, but al-Walid oversaw its completion. In 713-14, a series of earthquakes ravaged Jerusalem, destroying the eastern section of the mosque, which was subsequently rebuilt during al-Walid's rule. In order to finance its reconstruction, al-Walid had gold from the dome of the Dome of the Rock minted to use as money to purchase the material.[11]

Later constructions

The facade and porch of the mosque were constructed and expanded by the Fatimids, the Crusaders, the Mamluks and the Ayyubids

In 746, the al-Aqsa Mosque was damaged in an earthquake, four years before as-Saffah overthrew the Ummayads and established the Abbasid Caliphate. The second Abbasid caliph Abu Ja'far al-Mansur declared his intent to repair the mosque in 753, and he had the gold and silver plaques that covered the gates of the mosque removed and turned into dinars and dirhams to finance the reconstruction which ended in 771. A second earthquake damaged most of al-Mansur's repairs, excluding those made in the southern portion in 774.[13][14] In 780, the successor caliph Muhammad al-Mahdi had it rebuilt, but curtailed its length, but increased its breadth.[13][15] Al-Mahdi's renovation is the first with known written records describing it.[16] In 985, Jerusalem-born Arab geographer al-Muqaddasi recorded that the renovated mosque had "fifteen naves and fifteen gates".[14]

In 1033, there was another earthquake, severely damaging the mosque. The Fatimid caliph Ali az-Zahir, rebuilt and completely renovated the mosque between 1034-36. The number of naves was drastically reduced from fifteen to seven.[14] However, az-Zahir built the four arcades of the central hall and aisle, which presently serve as the foundation of the mosque. The central aisle was double the width of the other aisles and had a large gable roof, upon which the dome — made of wood — was constructed.[11]

"The Haram Area lies in the eastern part of the city; and through the bazaar of this (quarter) you enter the Area by a great and beautiful gateway(Dargah),... After passing this gateway, you have on the right two great colonnades (Riwaq), each of which has nine-and-twenty marble pillars, whose capitals and bases are of coloured marbles, and the joints are set in lead. Above the pillars rise arches, that are constructed, of masonry, without mortar or cement, and each arch is constructed of no more than five or six blocks of stone. These colonnades lead down to near the Maqsurah (an enclosure built near the centre of the qiblah wall).
Nasir Khusraw's description of mosque in 1047 C.E.(Safarnama, translated by Guy Le Strange) [17]

Jerusalem was captured by the Crusaders in 1099 during the First Crusade. Instead of destroying the mosque, the crusaders used the mosque — which they called "Solomon's Temple" — as a palace. In 1119, it was transformed into the headquarters for the Templar Knights. During this period, the mosque underwent some structural changes, including the expansion of its northern porch, and the addition of an apse and a dividing wall. A new cloister and church were also constructed at the site, along with various other structures.[18] The Templars constructed vaulted western and eastern annexes to the building, the western currently serving as the women's mosque and the eastern as the Islamic Museum.[14]

After the Ayyubids under the leadership of Saladin reconquered Jerusalem in 1187, several repairs were undertaken at al-Aqsa Mosque.[19] Saladin's predecessor — the Zengid sultan Nur al-Din — had commissioned the construction of a new minbar or "pulpit" of ivory and wood in 1168-69 but it was completed after his death; Nur ad-Din's minbar was added to the mosque in November 1187 by Saladin.[20] The Ayyubid sultan of Damascus, al-Mu'azzam built the northern porch of the mosque with three gates in 1218. In 1345, the Mamluks under al-Kamil Shaban added two naves and two gates to the mosque's eastern side.[14]

After the Ottomans took power in 1517, they did not undertake any major renovations or repairs to the mosque itself, but to the Temple Mount as a whole. This mostly included the building of a fountain (1526), a pool and three free-standing domes — the most notable being the Dome of the Prophet built in 1538-1620. All constructions were ordered by the Ottoman governors of Jerusalem and not the sultans themselves.[21] They did make additions to existing minarets, however.[21]

Modern era

The dome of the mosque in 1982. It was made of aluminum, but replaced with its original lead plating in 1983

The first renovation of the 20th century occurred in 1922, when the Supreme Muslim Council under Amin al-Husayni hired Ahmet Kemalettin Bey — a Turkish architect — to restore al-Aqsa Mosque and the monuments in its precincts. The council also commissioned British architects, Egyptian experts and local officials to contribute to and oversee the repairs and additions which were carried out in 1924-25 under Kemalettin's supervision. The renovations included reinforcing the mosque's ancient Ummayad foundations, rectifying the interior columns, replacing the beams, erecting a scaffolding, conserving the arches and drum of the dome interior, rebuilding the southern wall, and replacing timber in the central nave with a slab of concrete. The renovations also revealed Fatimid-era mosaics and inscriptions on the interior arches that had been covered with plasterwork. The arches were decorated with green-tinted gypsum and gold and their timber tie beams were replaced with brass. A quarter of the stained glass windows also were carefully renewed so as to preserve their original Abbasid and Fatimid designs.[22] Severe damage was caused by the 1927 and 1937 earthquakes, but the mosque was repaired in 1938 and 1942.[14]

On August 21, 1969 there was a fire inside al-Aqsa Mosque that gutted the southeastern wing of the mosque. Among other things the fire destroyed was Saladin's minbar.[20] Initially, Palestinians blamed Israel for the fire, and some Israelis blamed Fatah, alleging they had started the fire so as to blame Israel and provoke hostility towards it. However, neither Fatah nor Israel started the fire. The arsonist turned out to be a tourist from Australia named Michael Dennis Rohan. Rohan was a member of an evangelical Christian sect known as the Worldwide Church of God.[23] He hoped that by burning down al-Aqsa Mosque he would hasten the Second Coming of Jesus, making way for the rebuilding of the Jewish Temple on the Temple Mount. Rohan was hospitalized in a mental institution, found to be insane and was later deported from Israel.[24] The attack on al-Aqsa is cited as one of the catalysts for the formation of the Organization of the Islamic Conference in 1971, which brought together dozens of Islamic countries.[25]

The mosque seen from the former area of the Moroccan Quarter, 1991

In the 1980s, Ben Shoshan and Yehuda Etzion, both members of the Gush Emunim Underground, plotted to blow up the al-Aqsa mosque and the Dome of the Rock. Etzion believed that blowing up the two mosques would cause a spiritual awakening in Israel, and would solve all the problems of the Jewish people. They also hoped the Third Temple of Jerusalem would be built on the location of the mosque.[26][27] On January 15, 1988, during the First Intifada, Israeli troops fired rubber bullets and tear gas at protesters outside the mosque wounding 40 worshipers.[28][29]

Architecture

The rectangular al-Aqsa Mosque and its precincts are Template:M2 to ft2, holding a capacity of 400,000 worshipers, although the mosque itself is about Template:M2 to ft2 and could hold up to 5,000 worshipers.[30][31] It is Template:Ft to m long, Template:Ft to m wide.[30]

Dome

The silver-colored dome consists of lead sheeting

The dome of the al-Aqsa Mosque, unlike the Dome of the Rock which reflects classical Byzantine architecture, is strictly of early Islamic architecture.[32] Nothing remains of the original dome built by Abd al-Malik. The present-day dome was built by az-Zahir and consists of wood plated with lead enamelwork.[11] In 1969, the dome was reconstructed in concrete and covered with anodized aluminum instead of the original ribbed lead enamelwork sheeting. In 1983, the aluminum outer covering was replaced with lead to match the original design by az-Zahir.[33]

Al-Aqsa's dome is one of the few domes to be built in front of the minbar, the others being the Great Mosque of Damascus and mosques in Samarra and Kufa in Iraq.[34] The interior of the dome is painted with 14th century-era decorations. During the 1969 burning, the paintings were assumed to be irreparably lost, but were completely reconstructed using the trateggio technique, a method that uses fine vertical lines to distinguish reconstructed areas from original ones.[33]

Minarets

General view of the Ghawanima Minaret, 1900

The mosque has four minarets on the southern, northern and western sides.[31] The first minaret, known as al-Fakhariyya Minaret, was built in 1278 on the southwestern corner of the mosque, on the orders of the Mamluk sultan Lajin. The minaret was built in the traditional Syrian style, with the base and shaft square and divided by moldings into three floors above which two lines of muqarnas decorate the muezzin's balcony. The niche is surrounded by a square chamber that ends in a lead-covered stone dome.[35]

The second, known as the Ghawanima minaret was built at the northwestern corner of the Temple Mount, in 1297-98 by architect Qadi Sharaf al-Din al-Khalili, also on the orders of the Sultan Lajin. Thirty-seven meters in height,[35] it is almost entirely made of stone, apart from a timber canopy over the muezzin's balcony. Because of its firm structure, the Ghawanima minaret has been nearly untouched by earthquakes. The minaret is divided into several stories by stone molding and stalactite galleries. The first two stories are wider and form the base of the tower. The additional four stories are surmounted by a cylindrical drum and a bulbous dome. The stairway is externally located on the first two floors, but becomes an internal spiral structure from the third floor until it reaches the muezzin's balcony.[36]

In 1329, the Tankiz — the Mamluk governor of Syria — ordered the construction of a third minaret called the Bab al-Silsila Minaret located on the western border of the al-Aqsa Mosque. This minaret, possibly replaced by an earlier Umayyad minaret, is built in the traditional Syrian square tower type and is made entirely out of stone.[37] It is an old Muslim tradition that the best muezzin ("reciter") of the adhan (the call to prayer), is assigned to this minaret because the first call to each of the five daily prayers is raised from it.[35]

The last and most notable minaret was built in 1367, and is known as Minarat al-Asbat. It is comprised of a cylindrical stone shaft (built later by the Ottomans), which springs up from a rectangular Mamluk-built base on top of a triangular transition zone.[38] The shaft narrows above the muezzin's balcony, and is occasionally dotted with circular windows,[35] ending with a bulbous dome. The dome was reconstructed after the 1927 earthquake.[38]

There are no minarets in the eastern portion of the mosque because historically there were very few inhabitants on that side and therefore, there was little reason to have an additional minaret to call Muslims to prayer.[31] However, in 2007, it was announced that King Abdullah II of Jordan was planning to build a fifth minaret named after his father King Hussein and has been granted permission to do so from Israel. The King Hussein Minaret is planned to be the tallest structure in the Old City of Jerusalem.[39]

Facade and porch

The facade and front entrance of the mosque

The facade of the mosque was built in 1065 CE with the instructions of the Fatimid caliph al-Mustansir. It was crowned with a balustrade consisting of arcades and small columns. The Crusaders damaged the facade during their era of rule in Palestine, but it was restored and renovated by the Ayyubids. One addition was the facade's covering with tiles.[14] The second-hand material of the facade's arches includes sculpted ornamental material from taken from Crusader structures in Jerusalem.[40] There are fourteen stone arches along the facade,[1] most of which are of a Romanesque style. The outer arches added by the Mamluks follow the same general design. The entrance to the mosque is through the facade's central arch.[41]

The porch is located at the top of the facade. The central bays of the porch were built by the Knights Templar during the First Crusade, but Saladin's nephew al-Mu'azzam ordered the construction of the porch itself in 1217.[14]

Interior

Interior view of the mosque showing the central naves and columns
The doors of the Saladin Minbar, early 1900s

The al-Aqsa Mosque has seven aisles of hypostyle naves with several additional small halls to the west and east of the southern section of the building.[15] There is 121 stained glass windows in the mosque from the Abbasid and Fatimid eras. About a fourth of them were restored in 1924.[22]

The mosque's interior is supported by 45 columns, 33 of which are white marble and 12 of stone.[30] The column rows of the central aisles are heavy and stunted, having a circumference of Template:In to cm by Template:In to cm and a height of Template:In to cm by Template:In to cm. The remaining four rows are better proportioned. The capitals of the columns are of four different kinds: those in the central aisle are heavy and primitively designed, while those under the dome are of Corinthian order,[30] and made from Italian white marble donated to the mosque by Benito Mussolini.[41] The capitals in eastern aisle are of a heavy basket-shaped design and those east and west of the dome are also basket-shaped, but smaller and better proportioned. The columns and piers are connected by an architect rave, which consists of beams of roughly-squared timber enclosed in a wooden casing.[30]

A great portion of the mosque is covered with whitewash, but the drum of the dome and the walls immediately beneath it are decorated with mosaics and marble. Some wretched paintings by an Italian artist were introduced when repairs were undertaken at the mosque after an earthquake ravaged the mosque in 1927.[30] The ceiling of the mosque was painted, with funding by King Farouk of Egypt.[41]

The minbar ("pulpit") of the mosque was built by a craftsman named Akhtarini from Aleppo on the orders of the Zengid sultan Nur ad-Din. It was intended to be a gift for the mosque when Nur ad-Din would liberate Jerusalem and took six years to build (1168-74). Nur ad-Din died and the Crusaders still held control of Jerusalem, but in 1187, Saladin captured the city and the minbar was installed. The structure was made of ivory and carefully crafted wood. Arabic calligraphy, geometrical and floral designs were inscribed in the woodwork.[42]

After its destruction by Rohan in 1969, it was replaced by a much simpler minbar. In January 2007, Adnan al-Husayni — head of the Islamic waqf in charge of al-Aqsa — stated that a new minbar would be installed;[19] it was installed in February 2007.[43] The design of the new minbar was drawn by Jamil Badran based on an exact replica of the Saladin Minbar and was finished by Badran within a period of five years.[42] The minbar itself was built in Jordan over a period of four years and the craftsmen used "ancient woodworking methods, joining the pieces with pegs instead of nails, but employed computer images to design the pulpit [minbar]."[19]

Ablution fountain

The mosque's ablution fountain, known as al-Kas ("the Cup"), is located north of the mosque between it and the Dome of the Rock.[35] It is used by worshipers to perform wudu, a ritual washing of the hands, arms, legs, feet, and face before entry into the mosque. It was first built in 709 by the Ummayads, but in 1327-28 Governor Tankiz enlarged it to accommodate more worshipers. Although originally supplied with water from Solomon's Pools near Bethlehem, it currently receives water from pipes connected to Jerusalem's water supply.[44] In the 20th century, al-Kas was provided taps and stone seating.[45]

Religious significance

Islam

In Islam the term "al-Aqsa Mosque" is not restricted to the mosque only, but the entire Temple Mount.[46] The mosque is known to be the second house of prayer constructed after the Masjid al-Haram in Mecca. Imam Muslim quotes Abu Dharr as saying:

"I asked the beloved Prophet Muhammad which was the first "mosque" [i.e. house of prayer] on Earth?"
"The Sacred House of Prayer (Masjid al-Haram), i.e. Kaaba)," he said.
"'And then which', I asked?"
"The Furthest House of Prayer (Masjid al Aqsa, i.e. Holy Temple)", he said.
"I further asked, 'what was the time span between the two'?"
"Forty years," prophet Muhammad replied.[47]

Farthest mosque

The "farthest mosque" in verse 17:1 of the Qur'an is traditionally interpreted by Muslims as referring to the site at the Noble Sanctuary in Jerusalem on which the mosque of that name now stands. This is also confirmed by a number of hadith in which the farthest mosque is explicitly mentioned as being in Jerusalem. According to this tradition, the term used for mosque, masjid, literally means "place of prostration", and includes monotheistic places of worship such as Solomon's Temple, which in verse 17:7 is described as a masjid. Many Western historians regard this as the originally intended interpretation, for instance Heribert Busse,[48] and Neal Robinson.[49]

It has been also mentioned explicitly by Muhammad himself during night journey towards Bayt al-Maqdis (Jerusalem) as narrated by Anas bin Malik's hadith, which reads that Muhammad rode on Buraq to Jerusalem and there he prayed two raka'ah on the Temple Mount. After he finished his prayers, the angel Gabriel took him to Heaven, where he was taken through its seven gates — behind each gate there was a prophet. The prophets Muhammad met were Adam, Jesus and John the Baptist, Joseph, Enoch, Aaron, Moses and Abraham in that order. Muhammad then encountered a revelation by Allah that required him and the ummah (Islamic world) to pray fifty times each day in which he complied. Upon departing, he informed Moses about the revelation and afterward Moses told Muhammad "return to thy Lord and beg for reduction". Muhammad agreed and did this forty times (each time Allah reduced the amount of prayers by five, but Moses encouraged Muhammad to continue requesting reduction) until Allah commanded that Muhammad and the ummah pray five times a day. Muhammad told Moses and again he encouraged for more reduction citing the amount of prayers as a burden to the ummah, but Muhammad "felt ashamed" to be before Allah donce again with a request.[50]

First qibla

Interior view of the mosque showing the mihrab, indicating the qibla

The historical significance of the al-Aqsa Mosque in Islam is further emphasized by the fact that Muslims turned towards al-Aqsa when they prayed for a period of sixteen or seventeen months, thus it became the qibla ("direction") that Muslims faced for prayer.[51] Allah revealed the story of Abraham and Ishmael constructing and praying in the Ka'bah in Mecca to Muhammad though the angel Gabriel, influencing Muhammad to order the change of the qibla to the Ka'aba in 624 after the Hijra (Muslim migration to Medina).[52]

The altering of the qibla was precisely the reason the Rashidun caliph Umar, despite identifying the Rock — which Muhammad used to ascend to Heaven — upon his arrival at the Temple Mount in 638, neither prayed facing it nor built any structure upon it. This was because the significance of that particular spot on the Temple Mount was overtaken in Islamic jurisprudence after the change of the qibla to Mecca.[53]

According to early Qur'anic interpreters and what is generally accepted as Islamic tradition, in 638 CE Umar, upon entering a conquered Jerusalem, consulted with Ka'ab al-Ahbar — a Jewish convert to Islam who came with him from Medina — as to where the best spot would be to build a mosque. Al-Ahbar suggested to him that it should be behind the Rock "... so that all of Jerusalem would be before you". Umar replied "You correspond to Judaism!" Nonetheless, immediately after this conversation, Umar began to clean up the site — which was filled with trash and debris — with his cloak, and other Muslim followers then imitated him until the site was clean. Umar then prayed at the spot where it was believed that Muhammad had prayed before his night journey, reciting the Qur'anic sura Sad.[53] Thus, according to this tradition, Umar thereby reconsecrated the site as a mosque.[54]

Because of the holiness of Temple Mount itself — being a place where Abraham, Solomon, and David had prayed — Umar did construct a small prayer house in the southern corner of its platform, taking caution to avoid the Rock to come between the mosque and the direction of Ka'aba so that Muslims would face only Mecca when they prayed.[53]

Third holiest site

Main article: Holiest sites in Islam
An exterior view of the mosque, 1856

Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem are recognized as the three most important sites in Islam according to interpretations of scriptures in the Qur'an and hadith. References to Jerusalem and events in it have been made more than seventy times in the Qur'an, in various states of ambiguity, and many times in the hadith.[55]

Medieval scriptural references, as well as modern-day political tracts, tend to treat al-Aqsa Mosque as the third holiest site in Islam.[56] For example, Sahih Bukhari quotes Abu al-Dardaa as saying: "the Prophet of Allah Muhammad said a prayer in the Sacred Mosque (in Mecca) is worth 100,000 prayers; a prayer in my mosque (in Medina) is worth 1,000 prayers; and a prayer in al-Masjid al-Aqsa is worth 500 prayers," more than in an any other mosque. In addition, the Organization of the Islamic Conference, whose raison d'être is to "liberate al Aqsa from the Zionist [Israeli] occupation", refers to the al-Aqsa Mosque (in a resolution condemning Israeli actions in the city) as the third holiest site in Islam.[57]

According to the scholar Maimunah bint Sa'd on traveling to the al-Aqsa Mosque, he said, "the messenger of Allah [Muhammad] said, 'He should make a gift of oil to be burnt therein, for he who gives a gift to the al-Aqsa Mosque will be like one who has prayed salaah (five daily ritual prayers in Islam) therein.'[58][59]

Some Western scholars, such as Martin Gilbert claim that the use of the term "third holiest" is driven by political motives and that the al-Aqsa mosque is not the third holiest site in Islam. According to him, Jerusalem is not one of Islam's holiest cities, and point to the politicized nature of construction on the Haram from the time of the building of the Dome of the Rock until present. He argues that this site is arguably the most contested religious site in the world and that the emphasis on al-Aqsa today is due to its construction on the Temple Mount precinct, considered the holiest site in Judaism.[60] Others, such as Ghada Hashem Talhami and Jonathan Silverman, point out that the term "third holiest city" would be better translated as "third holy city," denoting the order of designation of the holy cities of Islam rather than order of importance. They point to the literary genre al-Fadhail (history of cities), where the perceptions of the value of Jerusalem varied, with some scholars even insisting on the superiority of Jerusalem to Mecca or Medina.[61][62]

Judaism

The Al-Aqsa mosque takes up part of the Temple Mount. Solomon built the first permanent Jewish temple where the mosque is located. This temple housed the Ark of the Covenant, and the Ten Commandments, both considered holy by the Jews. The temple also became the only legal place to have sacrifices. It is also on the location where Herod built the Second Temple.[63]

Various traditions exist about the location in Judaism. In rabbinical tradition it is the place where Adam was born, and built an altar to God. It is believed to be where Cain and Abel offered sacrifices to God, where Noah built an altar after the flood, and where Abraham intended sacrificing Isaac.[64]

‍Current situations

Al-Aqsa Intifada

On September 28, 2000, Ariel Sharon and members of the Likud Party, along with 1,000 armed guards, visited the al-Aqsa compound; a large group Palestinians went to protest the visit. After Sharon and the Likud Party members left, a demonstration erupted and Palestinians on the grounds of the Haram al-Sharif began throwing stones and other missiles at Israeli riot police. Police fired tear gas and rubber bullets at the crowd, injuring 24 people. The visit sparked a seven-year uprising by the Palestinians, commonly referred to as the al-Aqsa Intifada.[65] On September 29, the Israeli government deployed 2,000 riot police to the mosque. When a group of Palestinians left the mosque after Friday prayers, they hurled stones at the police. The police then stormed the mosque compound, firing both live ammunition and rubber bullets at the group of Palestinians, killing four and wounding about 200.[66]

Excavations

In February 2007, the Israeli government started to excavate a site for archaeological remains in a location where they were going to build a pedestrian bridge. This site was 60 meters away from the mosque.[67] The excavations provoked anger throughout the Islamic world, and Israel was accused of trying to destroy the foundation of the mosque. Ismail Haniya — then Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority and Hamas leader —[68] called on Palestinians to unite to protest the excavations, while Fatah said they would end their ceasefire with Israel.[69] Israel denied all charges against them, calling them "ludicrous".[70]

Administration

The Waqf Ministry of Jordan held control of the al-Aqsa Mosque until the 1967 Six-Day War. After Israel's victory in that war, instead of the government taking control of the al-Aqsa Mosque, Israel transferred the control of the mosque and the northern Temple Mount to the Islamic waqf trust who are autonomous of the Israeli government. However, Israeli Security Forces are permitted to patrol and conduct searches within the perimeter of the mosque. After the 1969 arson attack, the waqf employed architects, technicians and craftsmen in a committee that carry out regular maintenance operations. In order to counteract Israeli policies and their escalating presence around the site since the al-Aqsa Intifada, the local Arab leadership, in cooperation with the waqf, have attempted to increase Muslim control inside the Temple Mount. Some activities included refurbishing abandoned structures and making renovations for the mosque.[71]

Access

Sign in Hebrew and English outside the Temple Mount warning Jews not to enter the mosque compound

While all Muslim Arab citizens of Israel are allowed to enter and pray at the al-Aqsa Mosque, Palestinian Muslims living in the West Bank or Gaza Strip face several restrictions. Palestinian males must be married and 50 years of age and women must be married and 45 years of age to enter the mosque. Palestinian visits are therefore rare during most of the year, except during the month of Ramadan. Israeli reasoning for the restrictions is that older, married Palestinians are less likely "to cause trouble".[72]

The site of the mosque is not accessible to Jews due to a restriction placed on them by Israel's chief rabbinates in 1967. Their position was that the Jewish people were "ceremonially unclean and might accidentally tread on the place."[73] Israeli governmental restrictions only forbid Jewish prayer on the Temple Mount, but allow Jews as well as, other non-Muslims to visit for certain hours on certain days in the week. Several rabbis, and several Zionist leaders have demanded the right of Jews to pray at the site on Jewish holidays.[74]

See also

References

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