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{{short description|18th- and 19th-century French astronomer}}
[[Image:Charles messier.jpg|thumb|Charles Messier]]
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox scientist
|name = Charles Messier
|image = Charles Messier.jpg <!--(filename only)-->
|image_size =
|alt =
|caption = Charles Messier, {{c.|1770}}
|birth_date = {{birth date|1730|6|26|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Badonviller]], France
|death_date = {{Death date and age|1817|4|12|1730|6|26|df=y}}
|death_place = Paris, France
|fields = [[Astronomy]]
|workplaces =
|alma_mater =
|doctoral_advisor =
|academic_advisors =
|doctoral_students =
|notable_students =
|known_for = [[Messier catalog]]
|author_abbrev_bot =
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|influences =
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|awards = [[Légion d'honneur|Cross of the Legion of Honor]]
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}}


'''Charles Messier''' ({{IPA-fr|ʃaʁl me.sje|lang}}; 26&nbsp;June 1730 – 12&nbsp;April 1817) was a [[French people|French]] [[astronomer]]. He published an [[astronomical catalog]]ue consisting of 110&nbsp;[[nebula]]e and [[star cluster]]s, which came to be known as the ''[[Messier object]]s'', referred to with the letter M and their number between 1 and 110. Messier's purpose for [[list of Messier objects|the catalogue]] was to help astronomical observers distinguish between permanent and [[transient astronomical event|transient]] visually diffuse [[astronomical object|objects in the sky]].
'''Charles Messier''' ([[June 26]], [[1730]] &ndash; [[April 12]], [[1817]]) was a
[[France|French]] [[astronomy|astronomer]] who in [[1774]] published a catalogue of 45 [[deep sky objects]] such as [[nebula]]e and [[star cluster]]s. The purpose of the catalogue was to help [[comet]] hunters (like himself) and other astronomical observers to distinguish between permanent and transient objects in the sky.


==Biography==
Messier was born in [[Badonviller]] (in the [[Lorraine (région)|Lorraine]] ''[[région in France|région]]'' of [[France]]), the 10th of 12 children of [[catchpole]] Nicolas Messier and Francoise b. Grandblaise. Six of his brothers and sisters died young, and in 1741, his father died. Charles' interest in astronomy was stimulated by the appearance of a great 6-tailed comet in 1744 and by an annular Solar eclipse visible from his hometown on July 25, 1748.
Messier was born in [[Badonviller]] in the [[Lorraine]] region of [[Kingdom of France|France]], in 1730, the tenth of twelve children of Françoise B. Grandblaise and Nicolas Messier, a [[Court usher]]. Six of his brothers and sisters died while young, and his father died in 1741. Charles' interest in astronomy was stimulated by the appearance of the [[Great Comet of 1744|great six-tailed comet in 1744]] and by an annular [[solar eclipse]] visible from his hometown on 25&nbsp;July 1748.


In 1751 came under the employ of the astronomer of the Navy, [[Joseph Nicolas Delisle]], who instructed him to keep careful records of his observations. Messier's first documented observation was that of the Mercury transit of May 6, 1753.
In 1751, Messier entered the employ of [[Joseph Nicolas Delisle]], the astronomer of the [[French Navy]], who instructed him to keep careful records of his observations. Messier's first documented observation was that of the [[Transit of Mercury|Mercury transit]] of 6&nbsp;May 1753, followed by his observations journals at [[Musée de Cluny|Cluny Hotel]] and at the French Navy observatories.


In 1764, Messier was made a fellow of the [[Royal Society]]; in 1769, he was elected a foreign member of the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]]; and on 30&nbsp;June 1770, he was elected to the [[French Academy of Sciences]]. He was given the nickname "Ferret of Comets" by [[King Louis XV]].<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Jakiel |first=Richard |date=February 2017 |title=The Obsessive Comet Hunter |magazine=Astronomy |url=https://astronomy.com/magazine/2019/08/the-obsessive-comet-hunter}}</ref>
==His catalogue==
The first version of Messier's catalogue contained 45 objects and was published in the [[1774]] journal of the Academy of Sciences in Paris. By the time the final version of the catalogue was published in [[1781]], the [[List of Messier objects|catalogue]] had grown to 103 '[[Messier Object]]s'. On several different occasions between [[1921]] and [[1966]], astronomers and historians discovered evidence of another seven deep-sky objects that were observed by Messier and/or his friend and assistant [[Pierre Mechain]] shortly after the final version was published. These seven objects, [[M104]] through [[Elliptical Galaxy M110|M110]], are accepted by many astronomers as "official" Messier objects. The objects' designations, from [[Crab Nebula|M1]] to [[M110]], are still in use by professional and [[amateur astronomy|amateur astronomers]] today.


Messier discovered 13 comets:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.comethunter.de/cat2002/com_disc.txt |first=Maik |last=Meyer |title=Catalog of comet discoveries |access-date=15 May 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080716110006/http://www.comethunter.de/cat2002/com_disc.txt |archive-date=16 July 2008}}</ref>
The catalog is not scientifically organized by object type or by location (as the later [[New General Catalogue]] would be). Nonetheless, the Messier catalog comprises examples of every known deep sky object, including [[galaxies]], [[planetary nebulae]], [[open clusters]], and [[globular clusters]]. Because these objects were accessible to the relatively small aperture telescope (approximately 102 mm, or 4 inches) used by Messier to study the sky, they are among the most spectacular [[deep sky objects]] available to modern amateur astronomers using much better equipment. Furthermore almost all of the Messier objects are among the closest to our planet in their respective classes, which makes them heavily studied with professional class instruments that today can resolve very small and visually spectacular details in them. Professional astronomers still refer to objects by their Messier designation, and in amateur astronomy they are among the most frequently visited [[deep sky objects]]. The "Messier Marathon," includes the [[Crab Nebula]] (M1) to a small elliptical galaxy near Andromeda (M110). In [[Messier marathon]]s, many amateur astronomers compete to view all 110 of these objects in a single dusk-to-dawn session, usually in March, when conditions are most favorable. Many of the Messier objects can be seen in binoculars or small 50 mm telescopes used as finders on larger telescopes. A few Messiers are naked eye objects: examples include a globular cluster, [[Great Globular Cluster in Hercules|M13]] in Hercules, and more readily, M31, the [[Andromeda Galaxy]], as well as M42, the [[Orion Nebula]], and M45, also known as the [[Pleiades (star cluster)|Pleiades]] or [[Seven Sisters]].
* C/1760 B1 (Messier)
* C/1763 S1 (Messier)
* C/1764 A1 (Messier)
* C/1766 E1 (Messier)
* [[C/1769 P1]] (Messier)
* [[Lexell's Comet|D/1770 L1]] ([[Anders Johan Lexell|Lexell]])
* C/1771 G1 (Messier)
* C/1773 T1 (Messier)
* C/1780 U2 (Messier)
* C/1788 W1 (Messier)
* C/1793 S2 (Messier)
* C/1798 G1 (Messier)
* C/1785 A1 (Messier-[[Pierre Méchain|Méchain]])


[[File:Tomb of Messier in Pere Lachaise, Sept 2011.jpg|thumb|right|Messier's grave in [[Père Lachaise Cemetery|Père Lachaise]]]]
Many of the objects in the Messier catalog were discovered by his assistant Pierre Mechain.
He also co-discovered Comet C/1801 N1 ([[Comet Pons-Messier-Méchain-Bouvard]]), a discovery shared with several other observers including [[Jean-Louis Pons|Pons]], Méchain, and Bouvard.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Ni4BAAAQBAJ&q=messier-pons+1801&pg=PA83|title=Blazing a Ghostly Trail: ISON and Great Comets of the Past and Future|last=Grego|first=Peter|date=19 October 2013|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9783319017754|language=en}}</ref>


Near the end of his life, Messier self-published a booklet connecting the great comet of 1769 to the birth of [[Napoleon]], who was in power at the time of publishing. According to [[Maik Meyer]]:<ref>{{cite book |author=Meyer, Maik |title=Charles Messier, Napoleon, and Comet C/1769&nbsp;P1 |year=2007 |page=3 |url=http://www.icq.eps.harvard.edu/meyer_icq29_3t6.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141018151421/http://www.icq.eps.harvard.edu/meyer_icq29_3t6.pdf |archive-date=2014-10-18 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{quotation| As hard as it may seem to accept, the memoir is an ingratiation to Napoleon in order to receive attention and monetary support. It is full of servility and opportunism. Messier did not even refrain from utilizing astrology to reach his goal. Messier comes quickly to the point on the first page of the memoir, by stating that the beginning of the epoch of Napoleon the Great ... coincides with the discovery of one of the greatest comets ever observed.}}
Two objects in the Messier catalog are not deep-sky objects but rather small groupings of stars that appeared nebulous and fuzzy through Messier's optics. The object designated [[M73 (star group)|M73]] is an [[asterism (astronomy)|asterism]], a Y-shaped figure of four stars, while [[Winnecke 4|M40]] is nothing more than a [[double star]] in [[Ursa Major]].


Messier is buried in [[Père Lachaise Cemetery]] in the [[20th arrondissement of Paris|20th arrondissement]] of Paris.
Another object, [[Galaxy_M102|M102]], may be the 10th magnitude galaxy [[NGC 5866]] in Draco. This is a disputed object; a considerable body of scholarship indicates that this is a bookkeeping error and a double entry for M101, which lies 9 degrees almost due west. A dissenting view is that Messier correctly identified the object. The major alternate designation, universally accepted, is NGC 5866. Whatever the merits of this debate, NGC 5866 is winning a low-key popular struggle to assume the identity of M102. This is not due to any academic resolution of the issues, but because makers of computer databases for modern amateur telescopes and sky software for personal computers don't like to have a blank space in their Messier list and typically prefer not to send users back to M101. Here the goal is to maximize viewing pleasure regardless of scholastic accuracy. It is true that NGC 5866 is bright enough to have been identified by Messier's equipment and like the other Messier objects is readily viewed in small aperture or "back yard" instruments.


==Messier catalogue==
Some of the Messier objects have been so frequently photographed and reproduced that they are part of the popular culture. For example, the closing credit sequence of the 1960s show "[[The Outer Limits]]," included spooky music and a photograph of M104, an edge on galaxy bisected by a dark lane of dust. M104 is nicknamed "the [[Sombrero Galaxy]]." The naked eye object M45 also serves as the corporate logo for the Subaru corporation in Japan.
{{see also|Messier object}}
[[File:M42m.jpg|thumb|right|The Orion Nebula as drawn by Messier, and which he gave the designation [[Messier 42|M&nbsp;42]] in his catalogue]]
Messier's occupation as a [[comet]] hunter led him to continually come across fixed diffuse objects in the night sky which could be mistaken for comets. He compiled a [[List of Messier objects|list of them]],<ref>{{cite web |date=25 February 2008 |title=The Messier Catalog |url=http://messier.seds.org/ |work=SEDS Messier Database |publisher=[[Students for the Exploration and Development of Space|SEDS]] |access-date=8 May 2010}}</ref> in collaboration with his friend and assistant [[Pierre Méchain]] (who may have found at least 20 of the objects<ref name=jones1991>{{cite book |first1=Kenneth Glyn |last1=Jones |year=1991 |title=Messier's nebulae and star clusters |issue=2 |series=Practical astronomy handbook series |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=0-521-37079-5 |page=5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IuhLR35I9QUC&pg=PA5}}</ref>), to avoid wasting time sorting them out from the comets they were looking for. The entries are now known to be 39&nbsp;[[galaxies]], 4&nbsp;[[planetary nebula]]e, 7&nbsp;other types of [[nebula]]e, 26&nbsp;[[open cluster|open star cluster]]s and 29&nbsp;[[globular cluster|globular star cluster]]s.


Messier did his observing with a 100&nbsp;mm (four-inch) [[refracting telescope]] from Hôtel de Cluny (now the [[Musée national du Moyen Âge]]), in downtown [[Paris]], France. The list he compiled only contains objects found in the area of the sky Messier could observe, from the north [[celestial pole]] to a declination of about −35.7°&nbsp;. They are not organized scientifically by object type, or by location. The first version of Messier's catalogue contained 45&nbsp;objects and was published in 1774 in the journal of the [[French Academy of Sciences]] in Paris. In addition to his own discoveries, this version included objects previously observed by other astronomers, with only 17 of the 45&nbsp;objects being discovered by Messier himself.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Knight |first1=J.D. |title=Meet the Astronomers: Charles Messier |url=http://www.seasky.org/space-exploration/astronomers-charles-messier.html |website=Sea and Sky |access-date=2 September 2014}}</ref> By 1780 the catalog had increased to 80&nbsp;objects.
The [[Messier (crater)|Messier crater]] on the [[Moon]] and the [[asteroid]] [[7359 Messier]] were named in his honor.


The final version of the catalogue was published in 1781, in the 1784 issue of ''[[Connaissance des Temps]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Charles |last=Messier |year=1781 |title=Catalogue des Nébuleuses & des amas d'Étoiles |journal=Connoissance des Temps Pour l'Année 1784 (Published 1781) |pages=227–267 |bibcode=1781cote.rept..227M }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Original Messier Catalog of 1781 |website=Messier.seds.org |url=http://messier.seds.org/xtra/Mcat/mcat1781.html#messier1781 |access-date=10 November 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://messier.seds.org/xtra/history/m-cat81.html |website=Messier.seds.org |title=Charles Messier's personal copy of his 1781 "Catalog of Nebulae and Star Clusters"}}</ref> The final [[list of Messier objects]] had grown to 103. On several occasions between 1921 and 1966, astronomers and historians discovered evidence of another seven objects that were observed either by Messier or by Méchain, shortly after the final version was published. These seven objects, [[Messier 104|M&nbsp;104]] through [[Messier 110|M&nbsp;110]], are accepted by astronomers as "official" Messier objects.
==See Also==
*[[Messier object]]
*[[List of Messier objects]]


The objects' Messier designations, from [[Crab Nebula|M&nbsp;1]] to [[Messier 110|M&nbsp;110]], are still used by professional and [[amateur astronomy|amateur astronomers]] today and their relative brightness makes them popular objects in the amateur astronomical community.
==Sources==

* O'Meara, Stephen James (1998). ''Deep Sky Companions: The Messier Objects.'' Cambridge University Press.
==Legacy==
[[File:Messierbadon.JPG|thumb|right|upright=1.3|Commemorative plaque in Messier's hometown of Badonviller]]
The [[Moon|lunar]] crater [[Messier (crater)|Messier]] and the [[asteroid]] [[7359 Messier]] were named in his honour.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schmadel |first=Lutz D. |author-link=Lutz D. Schmadel |author2=International Astronomical Union |title=Dictionary of minor planet names |year=2003 |publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] |location=Berlin / New York |isbn=978-3-540-00238-3 |pages=592–593 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KWrB1jPCa8AC&pg=PA592 |access-date=9 September 2011}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Deep-sky object]]
* [[List of Messier objects]]
* [[Messier object]]
* [[Messier marathon]]
* [[Caldwell catalogue]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|25em}}

==References==
* {{cite book |last=O'Meara |first=Stephen James |year=1998 |title=Deep Sky Companions: The Messier Objects |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{cite web |url=http://messier.seds.org/xtra/history/CMessier.html |title=Charles Messier biography |website=Students for the Exploration and Development of Space |access-date=1 July 2007}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.ourdarkskies.com/Messiers/cm_page1.php |title=Short biography of Charles Messier and history of the Messier Object Catalog |first=Jon |last=Zander |website=OurDarkSkies.com |access-date=1 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070213043058/http://www.ourdarkskies.com/Messiers/cm_page1.php |archive-date=13 February 2007 }}
* {{cite magazine |url=http://www.astrobio.net/amee/spring_2007/retrospections_03.htm |title=Life of a Comet Hunter: Messier and Astrobiology |author1-link=Mark Brake |first1=Mark |last1=Brake |first2=Martin |last2=Griffiths |magazine=Astrobiology Magazine |edition=European |date=Spring 2007 |access-date=1 July 2007 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110527171357/http://www.astrobio.net/amee/spring_2007/retrospections_03.htm |archive-date=2011-05-27}}


==External links==
==External links==
* {{cite web |url=http://www.greenhawkobservatory.com/#!messier-download |title=Interactive Messier Catalog |website=Greenhawk Observatory}}
* [http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/history/CMessier.html SEDS: Charles Messier]
* [http://www.licha.de/astro_gallery_messier.php Amateur Photos of Charles Messier Objects]
* {{cite web |url=http://licha.de/astro_gallery_messier.php |title=Amateur Photos of Charles Messier Objects|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051028174006/http://licha.de/astro_gallery_messier.php|archive-date=28 October 2005}}
* [http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/marathon/marathon.html Messier Marathon]
* {{cite web |url=http://messier.seds.org/xtra/history/biograph.html |title=Messier biography |website=Messier.seds.org}}
* {{cite web |url=http://messier.seds.org/xtra/marathon/marathon.html |title=Messier marathon |quote=Attempts to find as many Messier objects as possible in one night}}
* [http://www.ngcic.org New General Catalog and Index Catalog revisions]
* {{cite web |url=http://www.ngcicproject.org/ |access-date=1 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100227154623/http://www.ngcicproject.org/ |archive-date=27 February 2010 |title=Revisions of the New General Catalog and Index Catalog |quote=NGC/IC Project is a collaborative effort between professional and amateur astronomers to correctly identify all of the original NGC and IC objects, such that the identity of each of the NGC and IC objects is known with as much certainty as we can reasonably bring to it from the existing historical record.}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.space-and-telescope.com/MessierObjects.aspx |archive-date=20 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020085045/http://www.space-and-telescope.com/MessierObjects.aspx |title=Clickable table of Messier objects}}
* {{YouTube |WLxYxTCTD68 |Charles Messier explains his catalog}}
* {{cite web|url=https://bibnum.obspm.fr/exhibits/show/messier_english/messier_biographie_english|title=Charles Messier}} a virtual exhibition by the {{cite web |url=https://bibnum.obspm.fr/ |title=Paris Observatory digital library}}
* [https://bibnum.obspm.fr/ark:/11287/3g4J5 Charles Messier's manuscripts] on [https://bibnum.obspm.fr Paris Observatory digital library]


{{Messier objects}}
[[Category:1730 births|Messier, Charles]]
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:1817 deaths|Messier, Charles]]
[[Category:French astronomers|Messier, Charles]]


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Latest revision as of 23:16, 26 November 2023

Charles Messier
Charles Messier, c. 1770
Born(1730-06-26)26 June 1730
Badonviller, France
Died12 April 1817(1817-04-12) (aged 86)
Paris, France
Known forMessier catalog
AwardsCross of the Legion of Honor
Scientific career
FieldsAstronomy

Charles Messier (French: [ʃaʁl me.sje]; 26 June 1730 – 12 April 1817) was a French astronomer. He published an astronomical catalogue consisting of 110 nebulae and star clusters, which came to be known as the Messier objects, referred to with the letter M and their number between 1 and 110. Messier's purpose for the catalogue was to help astronomical observers distinguish between permanent and transient visually diffuse objects in the sky.

Biography[edit]

Messier was born in Badonviller in the Lorraine region of France, in 1730, the tenth of twelve children of Françoise B. Grandblaise and Nicolas Messier, a Court usher. Six of his brothers and sisters died while young, and his father died in 1741. Charles' interest in astronomy was stimulated by the appearance of the great six-tailed comet in 1744 and by an annular solar eclipse visible from his hometown on 25 July 1748.

In 1751, Messier entered the employ of Joseph Nicolas Delisle, the astronomer of the French Navy, who instructed him to keep careful records of his observations. Messier's first documented observation was that of the Mercury transit of 6 May 1753, followed by his observations journals at Cluny Hotel and at the French Navy observatories.

In 1764, Messier was made a fellow of the Royal Society; in 1769, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences; and on 30 June 1770, he was elected to the French Academy of Sciences. He was given the nickname "Ferret of Comets" by King Louis XV.[1]

Messier discovered 13 comets:[2]

  • C/1760 B1 (Messier)
  • C/1763 S1 (Messier)
  • C/1764 A1 (Messier)
  • C/1766 E1 (Messier)
  • C/1769 P1 (Messier)
  • D/1770 L1 (Lexell)
  • C/1771 G1 (Messier)
  • C/1773 T1 (Messier)
  • C/1780 U2 (Messier)
  • C/1788 W1 (Messier)
  • C/1793 S2 (Messier)
  • C/1798 G1 (Messier)
  • C/1785 A1 (Messier-Méchain)
Messier's grave in Père Lachaise

He also co-discovered Comet C/1801 N1 (Comet Pons-Messier-Méchain-Bouvard), a discovery shared with several other observers including Pons, Méchain, and Bouvard.[3]

Near the end of his life, Messier self-published a booklet connecting the great comet of 1769 to the birth of Napoleon, who was in power at the time of publishing. According to Maik Meyer:[4]

As hard as it may seem to accept, the memoir is an ingratiation to Napoleon in order to receive attention and monetary support. It is full of servility and opportunism. Messier did not even refrain from utilizing astrology to reach his goal. Messier comes quickly to the point on the first page of the memoir, by stating that the beginning of the epoch of Napoleon the Great ... coincides with the discovery of one of the greatest comets ever observed.

Messier is buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery in the 20th arrondissement of Paris.

Messier catalogue[edit]

See also: Messier object
The Orion Nebula as drawn by Messier, and which he gave the designation M 42 in his catalogue

Messier's occupation as a comet hunter led him to continually come across fixed diffuse objects in the night sky which could be mistaken for comets. He compiled a list of them,[5] in collaboration with his friend and assistant Pierre Méchain (who may have found at least 20 of the objects[6]), to avoid wasting time sorting them out from the comets they were looking for. The entries are now known to be 39 galaxies, 4 planetary nebulae, 7 other types of nebulae, 26 open star clusters and 29 globular star clusters.

Messier did his observing with a 100 mm (four-inch) refracting telescope from Hôtel de Cluny (now the Musée national du Moyen Âge), in downtown Paris, France. The list he compiled only contains objects found in the area of the sky Messier could observe, from the north celestial pole to a declination of about −35.7° . They are not organized scientifically by object type, or by location. The first version of Messier's catalogue contained 45 objects and was published in 1774 in the journal of the French Academy of Sciences in Paris. In addition to his own discoveries, this version included objects previously observed by other astronomers, with only 17 of the 45 objects being discovered by Messier himself.[7] By 1780 the catalog had increased to 80 objects.

The final version of the catalogue was published in 1781, in the 1784 issue of Connaissance des Temps.[8][9][10] The final list of Messier objects had grown to 103. On several occasions between 1921 and 1966, astronomers and historians discovered evidence of another seven objects that were observed either by Messier or by Méchain, shortly after the final version was published. These seven objects, M 104 through M 110, are accepted by astronomers as "official" Messier objects.

The objects' Messier designations, from M 1 to M 110, are still used by professional and amateur astronomers today and their relative brightness makes them popular objects in the amateur astronomical community.

Legacy[edit]

Commemorative plaque in Messier's hometown of Badonviller

The lunar crater Messier and the asteroid 7359 Messier were named in his honour.[11]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ Jakiel, Richard (February 2017). "The Obsessive Comet Hunter". Astronomy.
  2. ^ Meyer, Maik. "Catalog of comet discoveries". Archived from the original on 16 July 2008. Retrieved 15 May 2008.
  3. ^ Grego, Peter (19 October 2013). Blazing a Ghostly Trail: ISON and Great Comets of the Past and Future. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9783319017754.
  4. ^ Meyer, Maik (2007). Charles Messier, Napoleon, and Comet C/1769 P1 (PDF). p. 3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 October 2014.
  5. ^ "The Messier Catalog". SEDS Messier Database. SEDS. 25 February 2008. Retrieved 8 May 2010.
  6. ^ Jones, Kenneth Glyn (1991). Messier's nebulae and star clusters. Practical astronomy handbook series (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 5. ISBN 0-521-37079-5.
  7. ^ Knight, J.D. "Meet the Astronomers: Charles Messier". Sea and Sky. Retrieved 2 September 2014.
  8. ^ Messier, Charles (1781). "Catalogue des Nébuleuses & des amas d'Étoiles". Connoissance des Temps Pour l'Année 1784 (Published 1781): 227–267. Bibcode:1781cote.rept..227M.
  9. ^ "Original Messier Catalog of 1781". Messier.seds.org. Retrieved 10 November 2007.
  10. ^ "Charles Messier's personal copy of his 1781 "Catalog of Nebulae and Star Clusters"". Messier.seds.org.
  11. ^ Schmadel, Lutz D.; International Astronomical Union (2003). Dictionary of minor planet names. Berlin / New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 592–593. ISBN 978-3-540-00238-3. Retrieved 9 September 2011.

References[edit]

External links[edit]

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