Keszthely-Fenékpuszta inland fort

Keszthely-Fenékpuszta inland fort
Alternative name	Valcum ?
limes	late antique internal fortifications
section	02, west line
Dating (occupancy)	4th century AD to mid-7th century AD at the latest
Type	a) Cohort fort? b) Supply warehouse
unit	unknown
size	377 × 358 m (13.4 ha)
Construction	stone
State of preservation	Some remains of the wall have been preserved and partially reconstructed.
place	Keszthely
Geographical location	46 ° 42 ′ 36.8 "  N , 17 ° 14 ′ 34.3"  E
Previous	Inland fort Kisárpás (north)

The Limes in Pannonia with Fenékpuszta

CAD reconstruction of the inner fort
Link to the picture (please note copyrights )

Excavation sketch of the inner fort of Keszthely-Fenékpuszta, 4th century AD

View of the shell construction of the defensive wall

The inland fort Keszthely-Fenékpuszta was part of the Pannonian Limes ( Limes Pannonicus ) in the Roman Empire . The excavation site is now in the Fenékpuszta district of the town of Keszthely at the western end of Lake Balaton in the Zala county in Hungary .

Fenékpuszta is one of the most important sites in Hungary. The late Roman fortification there is at the center of archaeological research. It probably originated in the middle third of the 4th century. Their peculiarity is that there was a continuity of settlements beyond the 5th century that extended into the 9th century. It was one of the largest building projects in late antique Pannonia . The multi-phase fortification, a rectangular system with round side and corner towers, was built in the area of ​​the Roman province of Pannonia I and belongs to the group of so-called internal fortifications. In the 5th century the fort became a Gothic royal residence. Its inhabitants were later the founders of the so-called Keszthely culture . This reached its greatest bloom under Avar rule. Since the end of the 19th century, more than 1000 extra and intra muros burials and 29 stone buildings within the fortress have been recorded. Most of these graves were dug between the 4th and 9th centuries.

location

The castle belonged in late antiquity to the administrative area of the province of Pannonia I . It was laid out on the southern tip of the Fenékpuszta peninsula. In antiquity, this loess soil protruding far south into Lake Balaton. Fenékpuszta was thus largely surrounded by swamp and water. The inland fortress was therefore easy to defend and could easily be supplied by water. In the ancient world, the highways Aquincum - Aquileia and Augusta Treverorum - Sirmium crossed in their vicinity . Not far from there was also a crossing over Lake Balaton (lacus pelsoidis or pelso) , as the lake narrowed sharply here.

Today, large parts of the ancient Lake Balaton have fallen dry, so that Fenékpuszta is no longer on a peninsula, but on the western shore of the lake. The excavation site is located seven kilometers south of the town of Keszthely, immediately west of the embankment and the parallel railway line. The place Fenékpuszta consists of the no longer maintained, neoclassical buildings of the former stud of the Austro-Hungarian noble family Festetics . The preserved ancient wall remains are a few meters north and east of this group of houses. They are openly accessible. An information board at the parking lot provides information about the fort and its history.

Surname

It used to be assumed that the fort was identical to the ancient Valcum . This view is controversial today, just as all other attempts to equate the excavation site with a name that has been handed down in written sources could not be proven. It is almost certain that the fort is listed by name in the Notitia Dignitatum , but has not yet been assigned to any of the names in question. The current place name Keszthely could be derived from the late antique fortress. The etymology of the word Keszthely can be traced back to its initially Slavic origin Kostel , which in turn is derived directly from the Latin castellum (= fortress or castle) and has the same meaning. In 1247 the place was called Kesztel . The later developed Hungarian part of the word hely means place , place .

function

The construction of the four well-known Pannonian large forts - relatively far away from the actual Limes on the Danube bank - took place in the course of the late Roman military reforms and the conception of a more in-depth defense system in the 4th century AD, in which the fortified cities of Sopianae, Savaria, Gorsium (in its last Roman construction phase) and Scarbantia were included. In addition to its military functions, it probably also fulfilled logistical tasks. It served as a base for the mobile army units ( Comitatenses ) and a supply base for the forts on the front line. In the event of war, the soldiers and the civilian population of the region could retreat to the fort and concentrate there for defense, which would also explain its unusually large interior area. In this case, the fort also advanced to become an economic center in the region.

Research history

Despite 125 years of research, only individual sections of the fort area have so far been examined. The excavations in Fenékpuszta began in the middle of the 19th century and continue to this day. In 1899 Arpas Csak first dug in the fort. In the same year he discovered Representation Building 25 inside the fortress. He reconstructed its floor plan by observing the course of the wall, which he uncovered in narrow search cuts. However, he gave no information about the finds or the chronological classification of the building. Bálint Kuzsinszky later described some of the finds from this excavation. In 1969 Karoly Saga made further search cuts here. In 1906, Basilica I was discovered near the north gate. In 2002 Róbert Müller dug in the fort. Geophysical observations showed that there are even more remains of stone buildings inside the camp than previously assumed. Andras Mocsy dates its origin to the first tetrarchy, Karoly Sagi assumed that it was only founded between 330 and 340 - due to the local coin finds. Aladar Rotny and Róbert Müller pleaded (because of the round towers) for a building in the middle of the 4th century.

The results of these excavations were brought together in a research project from 2006 to 2009 and supplemented by geophysical prospecting . Due to the questions and uncertainties that arose, a German-Hungarian excavation project was started in 2009 under the direction of Orsolya Heinrich-Tamáska and Roland Prien, which (as of 2019) continues to this day. In a total of six excavation campaigns, two large buildings with presumably representative tasks (building 25 and building 27), a bathing area and a granary were researched. The results of the excavations will be presented in an exhibition from September 2019 in the Balatoni Museum.

development

The fort was probably built in the 4th century by the Roman army over the remains of a mid-imperial settlement. Among other things, the largely identical construction work with the other four well-known inland forts in Pannonia as well as the renovation measures - often carried out at the same time - speak in favor of central planning. The location of the fort and the relatively narrow enclosing wall from the first construction period suggest that the military leadership did not expect a siege at that time. A number of similarly structured fortifications existed along the Danube border of the Roman Empire, the emergence of which can be classified in the context of the military and administrative reforms in the 4th century. Although they have the characteristics of a city complex (representative buildings, honorary monuments), the military buildings and large granaries at the same time indicate a logistical function for the Roman army.

At 374 the fortress burned down. At the end of the 4th century it was repaired and a basilica was built in it. During this time Christianity had also established itself in large parts of the population in Pannonia.

When Westrom ceded the provinces of Pannonia I and Valeria to the Huns by treaty between 406 and 433 , the forts and the other internal fortifications were also cleared by the army. The fortress of Fenékpuszta, on the other hand, became a retreat for the remaining Roman provincial population and turned into a civilian oppidum . Around 440 the Ostrogoths were assigned settlement land at Lake Balaton by the Huns. After the Battle of Nedao , 453/454, the Huns were driven out of Pannonia. In 455, Emperor Avitus tried to reintegrate western Pannonia into the western Roman Empire. At this time, regular Roman troops are likely to have moved into Fenékpuszta. a. put their supplies away. In the following year, Emperor Markian confirmed Gothic foederati under the leadership of the brothers Valamer, Thiudimir and Vidimer the right to settle in the Pannonian provinces. The fort was then stormed by them and badly damaged. The civilian population living in the surrounding area was used for the subsequent reconstruction. According to the Gothic chronicler Jordanes , Thiudimir set up his new residence on the shores of Lake Balaton. He and his entourage almost certainly took up residence in the fort. After the Ostrogoths under Theodoric had withdrawn to Moesia (473), the Romans again settled in the fort and, under the protection of its walls, survived - probably relatively unscathed - the turbulence of the migration period .

In 536 the Lombards invaded Pannonia. The grave fields around the fort suggest that the fortress was still largely intact at that time and served as a well-protected, central settlement area and local economic center. The Lombards apparently did not occupy it, as no related findings came to light inside. Either they were not able to take the inner fort or their legacy could not be correctly assigned archaeologically. Nevertheless, they apparently controlled the south side of the lake crossing, as the burial ground on the promontory of Vörs shows. In 568 they moved - after signing a contract with the Avars - to Italy, and part of the Romansh population also joined their train. Most of the residents of Fenékpuszta persisted here and then plundered the Longobard burial ground of Vörs.

The Trans-Danubian areas of Pannonia were now under the rule of the Avars. The novels in Fenékpuszta were granted a high degree of autonomy by the khagans , and in return they provided agricultural and handicraft products as a tribute. As they lived on the edge of the Avar sphere of influence, they were able to maintain their contacts with Italy and the Eastern Roman Empire without any problems - based on the findings. Apparently the region around Fenékpuszta was not populated extensively by the Avars. Signs of a certain prosperity (finds of costume components) point to new immigrants from Byzantium and Germanic tribal areas. Presumably, a local upper class developed over the course of time, which buried their dead either directly in Basilica II and on the area east of the fort horreum. The common people buried their dead outside the south wall. In 626, however, the Avars suffered a catastrophic defeat during the siege of Constantinople . A civil war then broke out in their sphere of influence. The inland fort was also stormed by the Avars in the course of the fighting and set on fire. The Romanesque upper class fled or was killed, their graves near Basilica II were looted and the survivors were resettled to Keszthely. The inland fortress itself was obviously not permanently occupied by the Avars. Karoly Sagi, on the other hand, did not believe that it was completely abandoned. In his opinion, the basilica II was rebuilt after 630 and some of the residents continued to hold onto their homes in the fort.

After 630 the borders of the Avar Empire shifted further to the west and south-west. The Christian-Roman population of Pannonia was completely cut off from Italy and Byzantium. In the course of this, the so-called “Keszthely culture” developed among them. It probably began when the Avars took over rule in the late 6th century. The later phase of this culture extended to the 7th and 8th centuries. The novels evidently succeeded, despite their isolation, in cultivating and preserving their traditional beliefs and language. Around 796 there are reports of Pannonian Christians who lived among the Avars under the leadership of their priests.

At the beginning of the 9th century, the Avar Empire was subjugated by the Franks under Charlemagne , and western Pannonia was incorporated into the Frankish Empire as the so-called Avar Mark . The fort was rebuilt and settled by the surviving Avars and, above all, the southern Slavs, the latter who immigrated here at the beginning of the 9th century. At that time, the fortress had lost its importance as a regional center. The center of power now shifted to neighboring Zalavar, where an early feudal civitas with a manor house and several churches arose, probably the seat of the Slavic Dux Pribina , who had fled here from Nitra. In the 10th century it was finally destroyed by the Magyars and then mostly removed by the population for the extraction of building material.

Fort

According to Radnóti, the inland fortress, together with the facilities of Ságvár, Környe, and Alsóhetény, belong to a type of construction that clearly differs from the other late antique forts along the Pannonian Danube Limes. The excavations showed that not only the defense, but also the interior work and the construction phases of this inner fort show very strong parallels. They were all founded in the same period. The evaluation of the previous findings showed that Fenékpuszta was probably built in the 4th century. It was a multi-phase system with a square floor plan that was oriented towards the four cardinal points and slightly towards the west. It covered an area of ​​377 × 358 m. It is noticeable that the inner fort was built in a rather unfavorable location, on a slope sloping to the east. Presumably they wanted to integrate an existing building into the wall ring (see building 25). In the north, an additional earth wall was raised about 800 m from the wall. The fort wall itself was reinforced by 32 two-story round towers and four corner towers. It is estimated that up to 85,000 m³ of stone material was built into the wall. The northeast corner was completely washed away by Lake Balaton between the 16th and 17th centuries. The fort could be entered through four gates (each with a passage) in the north, south, west and east. These were reinforced on the outside with two round flank towers with a diameter of 12 m and on the inside with a square tower, which housed a guardroom on its upper floor. In phase I, the defensive wall was still equipped with horseshoe-shaped intermediate towers and fan-shaped towers at the corners, as could also be observed in many other Limes forts of this time, in phase II they were replaced by round towers. The fort was probably almost completely surrounded by a moat, but its remains have only been discovered on the northwest corner.

During the excavations in the 1970s, it was found that the round side towers already belonged to construction phase II. The enclosing walls had been removed down to their foundations and even completely removed in the immediate vicinity of the towers. Then they were raised again and widened to 2.0 m to 2.7 m. The walls of the round towers were also 2.7 m thick, and their diameter was 14 to 15 m. Such - albeit somewhat larger - towers were now also found at the corners of the camp. The dimensions of the fortress as a whole had only changed slightly during the renovation work. The positions of the four gates also remained the same. The findings in Fenékpuszta and in the Alsoheteny inland fort showed that the renovations in both camps were carried out during the reign of Valentinian I.

• South gate
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  Reconstruction / elevation of the south gate

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  Aerial view from the southwest

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  The gate from the southeast

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  western round tower of the gate

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  Access to the tower

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  Detailed view of the wall construction

Interior development

So far, 29 stone buildings have been located inside, which are lined up along the two main streets of the camp. The building ensemble was dominated by a villa-like main or command building (Praetorium or Principia) , a large warehouse ( Horreum ) at the west gate, and a 102 m long farm building at the east wall. There were also stables or pens, a barracks barracks and a bathing building (thermal bath) . At the same time as the fortress, the warehouse building at the west gate, the north wing of building 25 and building 4, the pillar porches of which faced the main streets of the camp ( via principalis, via praetoria ) were built. Both main streets aimed at a tetrapylon in the center of the fort area. The early Christian basilica I stood right next to the storage building . In the second construction period, the floors of some buildings were raised a little. From Carolingian times are u. a. also known ground-level pit houses.

Building 25 (formerly Building A)

Findings sketch building 25, 1899–2002

The representative, approx. 100 m long and 50 m wide, multi-phase building consisted of two wings, a peristyle villa in the north and a portico villa in the south. Which of the two is the older is still a matter of dispute. According to the excavation results in 2002, the Portikusvilla in the south could have been the first to be built - before the actual inner fortress was founded. Possibly it was one of the numerous villae rusticae in Pannonia. The north wing was built at the same time as the fortress. Endre Tóth is of the opinion that building 25 only existed as a shell for a long time due to the lack of traces of elaborate interior decoration. However, this only applies to phase I of the fort. The complex had a peristyle courtyard and a hall with an apse ( triclinium ? ). Some of the rooms were heated and equipped with simple screed or terrazzo floors . In 2002, there were also traces of renovations in the south wing. After the eastern apse in the south-eastern wing was demolished, a small bathing building ( therme ) was built in its place . The building was probably destroyed by fire in the middle of the 5th century, but was rebuilt afterwards. Arpad Csak found painted wall plaster fragments (marble imitations, plant motifs) in the rubble. Csak also reported charred remains of beams, melted metal and glass. Presumably the building was used until the 8th century.

Basilica i

A five-aisled structure was found at the north gate. The building consisted of a west and an east wing. It was oriented from west to east and was closed off in the west by an apse . The east wing was rectangular, its roof was supported by five rows of columns with five pillars per row. It is very similar to the floor plan of a Horreum. Presumably he still had a portico at the eastern end, which stood directly on the main street of the camp. In the 9th century, the building was probably completely disintegrated, as a mine house and a melting furnace from the Carolingian era could be found inside. Decorative fittings such as mosaics , frescoes , marble floors or the like were obviously completely dispensed with.

Its definition as a sacred building is controversial. Bálint Kuzsinszky assumed a secular building, Mária T. Bíró from a horreum. Endre Tóth also considered it - due to its floor plan - to be a purely representative building. Karoly Sagi believed that it was never completed because some pillars were cut from late Roman pits and no floors were pulled in. In addition, a layer of fire or destruction was missing. In his opinion, the building was planned as accommodation for the camp commandant or for high dignitaries ( praetorium ). Tibor Nagy, however, thought it was an early Christian basilica. So far there is no concrete evidence that basilica I was ever used as a church. It is also possible that it was first used as a horreum and later put to another use through the addition of the western wing.

Basilica ii

The building stood in the northwest corner of the fort. With him, Károly Sági was able to differentiate between a total of six construction phases (A – F). The first two, in which the basilica was still used for profane purposes, were followed by two more (C – D), in which it was converted into a church. From the middle of the 4th century, a hall with an eastern apse and a terrazzo floor was added to the basilica. A heating duct ran through it from north to south. It was later extended to the west. The main entrance was in the west, from which one reached the somewhat lower hall via a step. In the final stage, the basilica II had three naves, each closed by an apse in the east, as well as a narthex and a portico . The three-aisled construction phase F will be in the 6th – 7th Dated century. It is unclear whether the pillars on the north wall, the chapel in the south and the small apse in the west were built or existed at that time. However, since they were made of the same building material (basalt and dolomite), this is likely. Such buildings are also common in Dalmatia and Italy in the 6th and 7th centuries.

To this day it is the only stone structure inside the fort that has been documented in detail. It is also considered to be the only documented early Christian church building north of the Drava that was used beyond the 5th century. Perhaps it emerged from a secular building in late antiquity at the end of the 4th century and was in use until the 10th century. Finds such as B. Stone ornaments that would indicate a church are completely missing, in contrast to other sites in Pannonia.

Horreum at the west gate

The multi-phase warehouse with four rows of pillars and a portico, oriented from east to west, was probably built at the same time as the fort. Ovens in its immediate vicinity suggest that it was preferably used for storing grain. The building was destroyed twice by fire, but was rebuilt (slightly changed) each time. Charred grain from its inventory could be detected at several excavation sites in the fortress. It was u. a. also used to level the main road of the warehouse. After that, no traces of destruction or alteration could be found. After the first fire incident, only the two middle rows of pillars were rebuilt and it is likely to have been used primarily as a warehouse again. During construction phases I and II, the ovens east of the Horreum were probably also built. The opinion put forward by Dorottya Gáspár that, due to the numerous tombs around the building, the predecessor of Basilica II, built in the second half of the 6th century, is rejected by the majority of researchers.

• Basilica II and Horreum
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  Aerial view from the south of the Horreum and the early Christian Basilica II

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  View from the southwest of the preserved foundation walls of Basilica II

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  The foundations of the basilica II

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  View from the north of the Horreum

port

The exact location of the port of the fort has not yet been clarified. It was either on the east side of the peninsula, as there was a gate here, or - even more likely - on the south side, where the southern arterial road from the fort ended and where the landing stage for a ferry was almost certainly. Karoly Saga suspected that it could be used to translate either in the direction of Vörs or Balatonszentgyörgy from here.

garrison

The Limitanei cohort, presumably permanently stationed in the fort, was relatively small in number and only performed routine garrison duties. She would not have been able to defend the fortress without reinforcements. Which units of the Roman army were in Fenékpuszta is unknown due to a lack of sources.

economy

Over time, the fort developed into a regional economic center. The local population operated all kinds of handicrafts (blacksmiths, bricklayers, stonemasons, potter, tanners, goldsmiths) as well as agriculture and cattle breeding. A large number of agricultural implements were recovered during the excavations. Particularly noteworthy are the remains (share, coulter, plow chain) of a technically very complex plow. In the western round tower of the north gate the workshop of a goldsmith could be proven. The objects recovered so far in Fenékpuszta show that no new products were made, but primarily bronze vessels, boxes, various devices, etc. were repaired. From the local ceramic production came u. a. Jugs and vessels with glazed decoration to the daylight.

Burial grounds

Several necropolises were discovered around Keszthely during the 19th and 20th centuries. The burial objects uncovered there include bucket rim fittings with human faces and Byzantine lead seals, which indicate a close contact between the Romanesque-Christian population living here and the Merovingian Franconian Empire and the Mediterranean cultural area. The excavation findings also show how the late ancient traditions lived on until the 7th century.

location	Time position	comment	Illustrations
Grave field on the south wall	5th - 9th centuries	There are several grave fields in front of the southern wall of the fortification, on which a total of over 1000 graves have been uncovered so far. Immediately in front of the western part of the south wall is a large burial ground of the early Keszthely culture (6th – 7th centuries). The Carolingian burial field from the second half of the 9th century extends on both sides of the south gate directly in front of the wall. Approx. 200 m away there is a burial ground dating from the Migration Period from the 5th century, from which 21 skeletons with artificial skull deformations were recovered. The custom of skull deformation reached Central Europe with the Huns. The late antique graves were grouped around a stone building, probably a multi-phase burial chapel ( cella memoriae ) with cafeteria and five burials, which was about 1.5 km from the south gate. Presumably a family grave that had been expanded several times. Mostly earth and so-called brick graves were found here in which the common people usually buried their dead. Its side walls were made up of masonry bricks ( tegulae ), which were covered with roof-shaped bricks ( imbrices ) along their edge or sarcophagus lids that were used secondarily. Pearls, onion-head type brooches, arm rings and coins were found among the gifts. The late antique burials ended in the 5th century. The burials of the 6th and 7th centuries were either simple earth graves or had stone packings along the grave pit. Sometimes the dead were laid on a wooden board. Women were buried with cup earrings, stylus needles, bangles with open ends, and disc brooches. Belt sets were occasionally found in men. There were also gifts that could be assigned to the Kezthely culture. Tombs from Carolingian times were discovered to the west and east of the south gate. Contrary to Christian tradition, weapons, equipment and food supplies were also placed in the grave. The dead were mostly in coffins.	Golden shield-shaped belt fittings of the Germanic burial from grave A in the hall of the Ödenkirche, 2nd half of the 6th century
Grave field corridor Ödenkirche	5th to 6th century	Double-row bone combs found their way into the ground. In a man's grave (14) a comb with a pocket slipcase came to light. The dead man also had a deformed skull and was probably not from the area around Keszthely-Fenékpuszta. In graves 10 and 17, four vestments were found. They lay on the shoulders and should originally have held together a kind of peplos dress . In grave no. 5 there were polyhedral earrings as gifts. The number of children and young people with tower skulls was disproportionately large among those buried here. 11 out of 21 did not reach adulthood. Presumably these were East Germans who were then under Hunnic rule and where the custom of bandaging the skull was widespread.	Germanic bone comb with slipcase from the grave of an adult man (grave A); Grave field corridor Ödenkirche, 2nd half of the 6th century
Burial ground at the Horreum	6th century	East of the Horreum (probably around a wooden church) a total of 36 body burials, oriented from east to west, were excavated. Most of these burials were without gifts, but seven graves were very richly furnished. The additions are Byzantine or Byzantine influenced products. They are among the most outstanding artisan products of the 6th century in Pannonia. The rows of graves adapted to the course of the east wall of the warehouse building. So it should have stood when the graves were laid. None of the graves was surrounded by a stone wrap. The majority of women were buried here. The dead were placed in the grave with basket earrings and dress pins from the early Keszthely culture (graves 6 and 9). Small gold tubes were recovered from graves 8, 9 and 14, which probably belonged to a hairnet and indicate close ties between the fort's inhabitants and the Mediterranean area . The men were buried with their weapons and multi-part belt sets. As already mentioned, there were a large number of ovens to the east of the Horreum. In the larger of them, the excavations uncovered bones from a larger group of children and adults of both sexes. They showed traces of blows and stab wounds. After the dead had been dumped, the ovens had been leveled and new ones built further north. You most likely died a violent death, either during an attack or for other reasons. It was not possible to clarify when this event took place.	Byzantine or Byzantine influenced additions from the Horreum and Basilica II burial ground
Cemetery in Fenéki Street	6th century	It comprised ten tombs and was north of the late Roman fortress. These were burials with separate grave pits. The actual narrow grave pit was covered with wooden boards. However, there were also burials in tree coffins.	Germanic gold pendants with almandines and colored glass inlays from the grave of a young woman; Cemetery on Fenéki Street, probably after AD 568
Tombs at the north gate	Late antiquity?	During excavations at the western gate tower, five burials of an unknown date were found.	Germanic grave goods from the late Roman fortress Keszthely-Fenékpuszta
Graves on the east wall		Some ancient graves were observed here during the construction of the railway in the 19th century.	Byzantine or Byzantine influenced additions to a women's burial, end of the 6th / beginning of the 7th century, from the Horreum burial ground
Tombs at the Basilica II	6th century	The chronological classification of the graves within the basilica walls ( intra muros) is based on the construction phases of the building, as in most cases they were robbed or without gifts. A strap end of the so-called Martynovka circle (grave 3) from the early Avar period came to light. The discovery of a pair of scissors in a wooden sheath, fragments of shoes decorated in Animal Style II and a bone ridge fluted on one side also do not allow a more precise dating. The burials were probably laid out in the second half of the 6th century. Two subsequent burials were observed at graves I and 7. The bones of the previously deceased were simply pushed aside. All of the skeletons examined were those of men. The dead from grave 9 and II died at an advanced age, possibly because they were two members of the priesthood.	Gifts from the burial grounds in front of the south wall of the fortress of Keszthely-Fenékpuszta

Monument protection

The monuments of Hungary are protected under the Act No. LXIV of 2001 by being entered in the register of monuments. The Roman sites in Keszthely-Fenékpuszta and the surrounding area belong to the nationally valuable cultural property as archaeological sites according to § 3.1. According to § 2.1, all finds are state property, regardless of where they are found. Violations of the export regulations are considered a criminal offense and are punished with imprisonment for up to three years.

See also

List of the late antique inland fort in Hungary

literature

• Frank Martinäbüttel : Theodoric the great (= shaping the ancient world ). Primus, Darmstadt 2003, ISBN 3-89678-470-6 .
• László Barkóczi : The burial ground of Keszthely-Fenékpuszta from the 6th century and the early medieval population on Lake Balaton. In: Yearbook of the Roman-Germanic Central Museum Mainz. 18. 1971, pp. 179-199.
• István Erdélyi : Keszthely-Fenékpuszta (Kom. Zala) . In: Archaeologiai Értesítő , 111, 1984, p. 266.
• Dorottya Gáspár: Special metal finds from Fenékpuszta. In: Antaeus. 8/9, 1978/79, pp. 71-73.
• János Gömöry: Landscapes and monuments along the Amber Road, results and perspectives of cultural tourism. International Symposium Sopron-Eisenstadt, 15.-18. October 1995, (conference papers) - Scarbantia Társaság, Sopron, 1999, ISBN 963-03-7907-4 .
• Orsolya Heinrich-Tamáska: Thoughts on the main buildings of the Pannonian interior fortifications in the context of late Roman villa architecture. In: Gerda v. Bülow, Heinrich Zahbelicky: (Ed.): Bruckneudorf and Gamzigrad. Late antique palaces and large villas in the Danube-Balkans. Files from the International Colloquium in Bruckneudorf from October 15 to 18, 2008. Rudolf Habelt, Bonn 2011, ISBN 978-3-900305-59-8 , pp. 233–242.
• Orsolya Heinrich-Tamáska, Péter Straub (Hrsg.): Man, settlement and landscape in the course of the millennia at Lake Balaton. (= Castellum Pannonicum Pelsonense. 4). Marie Leidorf, Rahden 2014, ISBN 978-3-89646-154-4 .
• Orsolya Heinrich-Tamáska (Ed.): Keszthely-Fenékpuszta. Catalog of the findings and selected findings as well as new research results (= Castellum Pannonicum Pelsonense. 3). Marie Leidorf, Rahden 2013, ISBN 978-3-89646-153-7 .
• Orsolya Heinrich-Tamáska (Ed.): Keszthely-Fenékpuszta in the context of late antique continuity research between Noricum and Moesia (= Castellum Pannonicum Pelsonense. 2). Marie Leidorf, Rahden 2011, ISBN 978-3-89646-152-0 .
• Orsolya Heinrich-Tamáska: Sacred or secular buildings? On the function and dating of the "churches" of Keszthely-Fenékpuszta (Zala County, Hungary). In: Niklot Krohn (Hrsg.): Kirchenarchäologie heute: Questions - Methods - Results (= publications of the Alemannic Institute Freiburg. 76). Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2010, ISBN 978-3-534-22251-3 , pp. 91-112.
• Orsolya Heinrich-Tamáska (Ed.): Keszthely-Fenékpuszta in the mirror of the millennia. Exhibition, Balatoni Múzeum, October 4, 2009 - May 31, 2010. Humanities Center for History and Culture, Leipzig 2009, ISBN 978-963-87813-7-6 .
• Orsolya Heinrich-Tamáska: Keszthely-Fenékpuszta between late antiquity and the Carolingian era. In: The Lombards. The end of the migration of peoples, exhibition in the Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn, August 22, 2008 - January 11, 2009. Primus, Darmstadt 2008, ISBN 978-3-89678-385-1 , pp. 90-107.
• Orsolya Heinrich-Tamáska: Comments on the transformation of late antique structures in Pannonia using the example of Keszthely-Fenékpuszta. In: Acta archaeologica Carpathica. 42/43, 2007/08, pp. 199-229.
• Orsolya Heinrich-Tamáska, Roland Prien (ed.): Castrum Virtuale. Reconstruction of a late antique site on Lake Balaton. An exhibition in memory of Prof. Géza Alföldy in the Heidelberg University Museum from April 26 to June 30, 2019 (= Heidelberg University Museum. Catalogs. Volume 14). Universitätsmuseum Heidelberg, Heidelberg 2019, ISBN 978-3-948083-03-8 .
• Friderika Horváth : Comments on the late antique ceramic material from the fortress of Keszthely-Fenékpuszta - first results. Workshop Leipzig, 8.-9. February 2008. Archaeological Institute of the UAdW. Online, accessed June 7, 2014
• Franz Humer: Legionary eagle and druid staff (from the legionary camp to the Danube metropolis). Conference contributions from Noricum u. Pannonia, Office of Lower Austria. Provincial government and archaeol. Park Carnuntum, 2007, ISBN 978-3-85460-229-3 .
• András Mócsy : Pannonia régészeti Kézikönyvse. (= Archaeological Handbook of Pannonia). Akadémiai K., Budapest 1990, ISBN 963-05-5500-X .
• Róbert Müller: The grave fields of Keszthely-Fenékpuszta, Ödenkirche-Corridor. (= Castellum Pannonicum Pelsonense 5). Marie Leidorf, Rahden 2014, ISBN 978-3-89646-155-1 .
• Róbert Müller: The grave fields in front of the south wall of the fortification of Keszthely-Fenékpuszta (= Castellum Pannonicum Pelsonense. 2). Marie Leidorf, Rahden 2010, ISBN 978-3-89646-151-3 .
• Róbert Müller: The population of Fenékpuszta in the early Avar period. In: Christianity in Pannonia in the first millennium. International conference in the Balaton Museum in Keszthely from November 6th to 9th, 2000. (= Zalai múzeum. 11). Zala Megyei Múz. Igazgatósága, Zalaegerszeg 2002, pp. 93-102.
• Róbert Müller: A Germanic grave from the early Avar period from Keszthely-Fenékpuszta. In: Acta archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 51, 1999, pp. 341-358.
• Róbert Müller: 4.6: The fortress "Castellum", Pannonia Inferior. and 5.17: The Keszthely culture. In: Huns and Avars: Horsemen from the East. Accompanying book and catalog for the Burgenland State Exhibition April 26 - October 31, 1996, Halbturn Castle. Office d. Burgenland. State government, Dept. XXII / 1 - Culture and Science, Eisenstadt 1996, DNB 953242579 .
• Károly Sági: The problem of the Pannonian Romanization as reflected in the migration history of Fenékpuszta. In: Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 18, 1970, pp. 147-196.
• Péter Straub: Iron bag hangers in graves of the 5th century by Keszthely-Fenékpuszta. In: Acta archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 52, 2001, pp. 303-318.
• Péter Straub: An early Avar period pigeon primer with a Christian symbol by Keszthely-Fenékpuszta. In: Christianity in Pannonia in the first millennium. International conference in the Balaton Museum in Keszthely from November 6th to 9th, 2000 (= Zalai múzeum 11). Zala Megyei Múz. Igazgatósága, Zalaegerszeg 2002, pp. 103-112.
• Péter Straub: 6-7. századi temetörészlet Keszthely-Fenékpusztán (Erdélyi István ásatása, 1976) - graves from the 6th and 7th centuries in Keszthely-Fenékpuszta (The excavation of István Erdélyi , 1976). In: Lívia Bende, Gábor Lörinczy, Csaba Szalontai (eds.): Hadak útján. A népvándorlás kor fiatal kutatóinak konferenciája. 10., Domaszék, 1999. September 27-30 . Csongrád Megyei Múz. Igazgatósága, Szeged 2000, pp. 205-229.
• Endre Tóth: Roman inland fort in the provinces of Pannonia Prima and Valeria. In: Zsolt Visy, Endre Tóth, Dénes Gabler , Lazlo Kocsis, Peter Kovács u. a .: From Augustus to Attila - life on the Hungarian Danube Limes (= writings of the Limes Museum Aalen. 53). Konrad Theiss Verlag, Stuttgart 2000, ISBN 3-8062-1541-3 , pp. 33-36 (on Keszthely-Fenékpuszta, pp. 34-35).
• László Vándor: Központok a Zala Mentén (settlement centers on the Zala river). Exhibition catalog Göcseji Múzeum Állandó Kiállítása. Zalaegerszeg 2002, ISBN 963-7205-25-X .
• Zsolt Visy : A római limes Magyarországon. Corvina K., Budapest 1989, ISBN 963-13-2282-3 .

Web links

Commons : Binnenkastell Keszthely-Fenékpuszta  - collection of images, videos and audio files

• Website of the Archaeological Park
• KESZTHELY-FENÉKPUSZTA IN THE CONTEXT OF LATE ANCIENT CONTINUITY RESEARCH BETWEEN NORICUM AND MOESIA, PDF

Remarks

1. ↑ Jenő Fitz: Border adjustment in 214 between Pannonia Superior and Inferior. In: Alba Regia. 16, 1978, pp. 71-86; here, p. 78.
2. ^ Ján Stanislav: Slovenský juh v stredoveku II . Slovenské literárne centrum, 2004, ISBN 80-88878-89-6 , p. 245.
3. ↑ Lajos Kiss: Földrajzi nevek etimológiai szótára . Akadémiai Budapest 1978, p. 331.
4. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska: 2008, pp. 91–92.
5. ^ ^{A b c} Orsolya Heinrich-Tamáska, Roland Prien, Zsolt Vasáros: Introduction. In: Orsolya Heinrich-Tamáska, Roland Prien (ed.): Castrum Virtuale. Reconstruction of a late antique site on Lake Balaton. Universitätsmuseum Heidelberg, Heidelberg 2019, ISBN 978-3-948083-03-8 , p. 5 f., Here p. 5.
6. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska: 2008, pp. 91 and 240
7. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska: 2008, p. 91.
8. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska: 2008, p. 91.
9. ↑ Frank M.äbüttel: 2003, pp. 18 and 24.
10. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska: 2008, p. 102.
11. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska: 2008, p. 104.
12. ↑ Róbert Müller: 1996, pp. 91–93 and 265–266.
13. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska: 2008, pp. 95 and 106
14. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska: 2008, p. 92.
15. ↑ Endre Tóth: 2000, p. 33.
16. ↑ Róbert Müller: 1996, pp. 91-93.
17. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska: 2008, p. 107.
18. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska: 2008, pp. 239–243.
19. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamáska: 2010, pp. 94–98.
20. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska: 2008, p. 101 and 2010, p. 101–107.
21. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska: 2008, p. 101.
22. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska: 2008, p. 94.
23. ↑ Endre Tóth, 2000, p. 33. 35. 36
24. ^ Róbert Müller: 1996, pp. 92-93.
25. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska: 2010, pp. 100-101.
26. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska: 2008, pp. 96 and 98.
27. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska: 2008, p. 96 and 100
28. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska: 2008, p. 98.
29. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska: 2008, p. 98.
30. ↑ Orsolya Heinrich-Tamaska: 2008, p. 100.