Canarios (natives of Gran Canaria)

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Canarios were the first known inhabitants of the island of Gran Canaria . In popular scientific literature, the Canarios are often incorrectly referred to as Guanches along with the indigenous people of the other islands, the Old Canaries . In the Spanish-language literature, the term "Antiguos Canarios" is also common to distinguish it from the current inhabitants of the Canary Islands.

The first human presence in the Canary Islands is for the 10th century BC. Proven. In the first century BC Until the third century AD there were close relations with Rome or with the areas of North Africa under Roman influence. These connections broke off completely in the course of the 4th century AD. Since then, the Canarios have lived without contact with the mainland and the other islands. In the next 1000 years or so they developed their own culture. After the island was conquered at the end of the 15th century, the Canarios were wiped out as an independent ethnic group by various measures taken by the new rulers .

origin

The "hipótesis mediterránea" (Mediterranean hypothesis) was developed at the end of the 20th century as a model for explaining the settlement of the Canary Islands . It is based on the theory that the first protagonists of the colonization of the Canary Islands were Phoenician / Punic seafarers who started in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. Brought groups of settlers from the "Círculo del Estrecho" to the islands. “Círculo del Estrecho” is the name given to the extensive geopolitical zone that extends over the extreme south of the Iberian Peninsula and the western part of the North African coast at the transition from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean. The settlement was not a one-off activity, but a continuous process that ultimately affected all islands. The origin of the settlers was probably not uniform. This is supported by the differences in the composition of the population found in ethnological and genetic comparisons of archaeological finds. The earliest evidence of the presence of settlements on the island of Gran Canaria, proven by radiocarbon methods, does not date from the 1st century AD. The close ties between the Canary Islands, the Mediterranean and the Roman-influenced areas of North Africa broke during the 4th century Century AD completely. Since the Old Canarians had no nautical knowledge and did not have the tools to make seagoing ships, the Canarios lived for the next 1,000 years without contact to the mainland or the other islands and thus developed their own culture.

Appearance

Indigenous people of the island of Gran Canaria represented by Leonardo Torriani in the late 16th century

The appearance of the Canarios was not always described consistently before the conquest. In the 19th century, due to " racial " investigations, a picture of the Canarios was disseminated, which according to the results of more recent archaeological investigations is no longer represented today. What is certain is that the male natives of the Canary Islands were around 1.70 m tall, larger than the average of the Castilian conquerors. Blue eyes and blonde hair were particularly common in children, but were rather rare.

The reports of contemporary chroniclers, the drawings of Leonardo Torriani from 1592 and the descriptions of Abreu Galindo at the beginning of the 17th century about the clothing of the Canarios differ considerably. As cultural adaptation increased, an increasing amount of clothing items worn at the same time was described. Except for the statement by Niccoloso da Recco from 1341 that the Canarios walked around virtually naked, no description of the written traditions matches the clothing that has been clearly established through archaeological finds.

language

It is assumed that all the ancient Canaries were born when the islands were first settled in the period between 500 BC. BC and AD 300 had the same language. In the course of the more than 1000 years of isolation that followed, languages ​​diverged. The languages ​​that are grouped under the term Guanche today differed so much that in the 15th century the inhabitants of one island were not understood by those of the other. From what has been passed down from the languages, linguists determined that they were similar to the languages ​​of the Berber peoples of North Africa.

society

Borderline between the realm of Gáldar (dark) and the realm of Telde (light)

From contemporary reports by Europeans, a picture of the society of the indigenous peoples after the first contact with European cultures can be created. Apparently there was a strict hierarchy in Canarios society . At the lowest level were the free men who were busy with productive activities. Above it stood a class of nobility. It had military functions and political and economic power. The members of the nobility were not productive. In principle, marriages only took place within the separate social groups. The young men from noble families were raised to the nobility in a ceremony. With excellent performance z. B. In combat, people of simple origin could also be included in the group of nobles. At the top of the hierarchy was the ruler, the Guanarteme . He came from the ruling family and was appointed by the council of nobles.

At the time of the conquest in the 15th century, the island of Gran Canaria was divided into two domains (Guanartematos). These consisted of six tribal areas each, each headed by a tribal leader (guayre). The Council (Consejo) chaired by the Guanarteme was a civil institution in which all the nobles were represented. He had the task of advising and supporting the Guanarteme in all government tasks. He also held the position of a court of law. The War Council (Sabor) was an assembly of aristocrats with responsibilities of a military nature. It was formed from the military leaders. The highest priest (Faycán), like the Guanarteme, came from the ruling family. As a nobleman, he was a member of the council. He was the mediator between humans and the sun god. His duties included managing the granaries. He took care of the taxes and the distribution of the grain in times of crisis. The ruler (Guanarteme) made all political decisions. He was the chief military leader. He also made decisions on religious matters.

religion

Based on the written reports that have been available since the middle of the 14th century and based on archaeological finds, it can be assumed that the sun and moon were worshiped by the Canarios as the highest divine beings. The highest being, which the Canarios called "Acoran", was presumably embodied by the sun.

In addition to gods, the Canarios believed in evil spirits ("Tibicenas") which they imagined as animal-like beings, often with a dog's head. A number of small figures called “Ídolillos” have been found on the island of Gran Canaria . The sites do not indicate that the figures were worshiped or worshiped as gods or spirits. Today, in contrast to their name “Ídolo”, they are not interpreted as images of gods, but in the sense of amulets .

The location of some archaeological sites on Gran Canaria, such as the Roque del Bentaiga (Tejeda) or Cuatro Puertas (Telde), suggest that astronomical measurements were made here. In the center of the island, at the foot of the Roque del Bentaiga, there is a cultic place (Almogaren) where rituals were performed, which were connected with the sacrifice of the intestines of consecrated animals or the spilling of milk, blood, water or other liquids as offerings were. There seem to have been several of these types of cultic places in Gran Canaria.

The Canarios rituals were led by a chief priest (Faycán). It is believed that women also participated as priestesses in the celebration of rituals.

funeral

Model of the La Guancha tomb

The Canarios buried their dead in different ways. Sometimes there was only one corpse in natural and artificial caves. However, remains of a large number of people have been found in most of the caves. They were probably members of the same family who were buried one after the other in the same place over the course of time. This also applies to the burial mounds, which were burial sites for only one or many corpses. Burial niches (cistas) can only be found in Gran Canaria in the Canary Islands. These are tomb-like graves lined with stones.

In general, the burial sites of the Canarios are grouped together and form necropolises that were sometimes surrounded by walls. The tombs were usually located near the homes. This shows a close connection between the world of the living and that of the dead.

The bodies of the deceased were wrapped in their clothing and sewn into layers of fur or vegetable matter. Some mummies were also found in Gran Canaria, the corpses of which had been protected from decay by conservative treatment .

Dwellings

Site of the settlement of caves and houses in Gáldar

Most of the Canarios lived in natural caves. Numerous caves remained unchanged except for a small wall in the area of ​​the entrance which was built as dry stone. Most of life took place in the front part around the fireplace. In the back were the beds. The artificial caves often found in Gran Canaria were carved into the volcanic tuff. They mostly had a rectangular or cross-shaped plan. But there were also caves that had a central room to which other rooms were connected laterally. The artificial caves were occasionally connected to form groups whose individual rooms were used differently. There were some caves in an ensemble that served as burial sites, others that were used as apartments or as storage for food. It was common to decorate the walls with paintings or petroglyphs with motifs similar to those of pintaderas or ceramics.

Houses were often built in groups near caves. Since there are seldom flat surfaces on the island, the base of a large part of the houses was carved into the tuff stone of the subsoil, so that part of the house was below the surface of the earth. The walls were built from basalt stones or hewn tuff. The gaps were filled with small stones and a kind of mortar made from clay mud. The roof was flat. The beams were covered with stone slabs and braided plants. A layer of earth was piled on top. The Canarios settlements occasionally consisted of more than 60 buildings. These were not only residential buildings, but also granaries. To protect against attacks, some settlements were surrounded by a wall.

economy

Granary "Cenobio de Valerón"

The Canarios economy was based on agriculture. Barley and wheat were the main plant foods, followed by legumes. These plants were sown on a prepared soil. Tools made of wood and stone were used for agriculture. In some places on the island, irrigation channels were found, which indicate that water was not only directed near the houses, but also on the fields, so there were already irrigated fields. Part of the harvest was not used for consumption, but was stored individually but also collectively as seeds and food reserves in specially built granaries. For consumption, the grain was roasted in clay pots and then ground in stone mills. The flour ( gofio ) was eaten mixed with fat, cheese and milk. It is not known since when fig trees grew on the island. At the end of the 14th and 15th centuries, figs apparently played a role in the diet of the Canarios.

Animal husbandry was another important area of ​​activity for the population. Mainly goats were kept. They gave you meat, milk, cheese and fat. Goats were better adapted than sheep to the sometimes sparse vegetation and the large differences in altitude on the island. Pigs were kept primarily in the forested parts of the island. In small numbers there were two different types of dogs, one like the dingo and the other with a slightly narrower skull. On the one hand they were kept as herding dogs, but they were also eaten.

As can be seen from the remains that have been found at some excavation sites, mussels and fish were an important addition to the diet. At low tide, the Canarios mainly collected limpets , burgados ( sea ​​snails ), crabs and sea ​​urchins . Examinations of the waste at many archaeological sites show that Vieja , Pejeperro, Sama, Bocinegro and moray eels were caught. All of these fish are found in the shallow waters of the Gran Canary coast. So they could be caught without the use of ships. The ethno-historical sources report the use of a type of reed with fish hooks, fish baskets and nets made of woven rushes, as well as small walls that lay below the surface of the water at high tide that held the fish back so that they could be caught at low tide.

Artifacts

Items of everyday use

Ceramics
Ceramic bowl from Gran Canaria

Before the island was conquered, the vessels were made from ceramic and burned in a wood fire in an earth pit. The Canarios products are extremely versatile in terms of shapes, the type of handles and the motifs of the decoration. This and the type of surface treatment with the spatula show a very high technical level. The size of normal clay vessels varies between three and six liters. On the island of Gran Canaria, an unusually large number of vessels were found that are only a few centimeters in diameter and are therefore called "microcerámica".

In the simple vessels, spherical and hemispherical, cylindrical and ovoid shapes predominate . The more interesting and complicated shapes are composed of two or more frustoconical bodies. A significant group are those that have a flat base, a neck, and vertical or diverging walls. The vessels have different handles or hanging devices. Some vessels have been found that have a conical lid with a spherical end.

Not only the shape, but also the decoration of the Canarios vessels is remarkable because of the techniques used and the motifs. The decoration was often created by scratching lines in the damp clay. Some patterns appear to have been transferred by impressing pintaderas. In addition, white, red and black mineral pigments were applied before firing .

The decorative motifs are geometric, predominantly lines, circles, filled or represented by a simple line, triangles, squares, right angles and diamonds. They were arranged individually or as bands horizontally, vertically or diagonally. In a few cases, vessels were decorated with a sun motif to which a special symbolic meaning was assigned. While there are some vessels that are decorated on the inside, the majority are only decorated on the outside and sometimes on the base. This wealth of decoration is not only found in ceramics, it is also repeated in different expressions of the society of the indigenous population of the island of Gran Canaria as wall paintings, pintaderas, on fabrics, etc.

stone

There are no usable metal deposits in the Canary Islands. The Canarios used stone tools for cutting and grinding. A large part was made from basalt , phonolite and trachyte . Apparently important and everywhere tools were hand mills and mortars. There were mills where a slightly smaller round stone could be turned in a round recess of another stone. The moving stone had an opening in the middle to fill in grains. Other mills consisted of a "ship-shaped" hollowed stone in which another stone was moved back and forth. Obsidians are particularly suitable for cutting tools . They occur in the area of ​​the Montaña de Hogarzales near Aldea de San Nicolás. They were found spread over the island during archaeological excavations.

It has not been established that the Canarios had stone axes. Excavations have found suitable fragments of basalt and obsidian without appropriate stems or handles. No other weapons were found that were made of or with stone. One of the most important weapons of the Canarios were unworked stones that they could throw accurately by hand.

Vegetable fibers

The Canarios used rushes and reeds to make textiles and ropes. There is little evidence for the use of palm leaves. A high level of development can be observed in objects made from plant fibers. There were at least half a dozen manufacturing techniques. To prepare the deceased Canarios for burial, large mats made of plant fiber were used together with fur. Plant fibers were also made into bags and nets. Fishing nets are mentioned by many chroniclers without naming the material. A weaving technique with longitudinally and transversely arranged fibers was used for clothing . If the fabrics were part of clothing, they were dyed red or yellow with dyes obtained from plants.

Wood

Wooden supports and beams were used for the roofs of the houses. Wooden sticks sharpened on one or both sides were used in the processing of fabrics and furs. For burial, pine boards were used as bier on which the deceased were stored away from the ground. The aristocratic warriors of the island were armed with wooden weapons in the form of lances whose tips were hardened in the fire. The dimensions of these weapons ranged between 1.2 and 2 m. The equipment was completed by shields, known by the indigenous people under the name "tarjas". The shields were made of wood from the dragon tree because it is particularly light. They were decorated with paintings that served as an individual identification mark for each individual warrior. It is doubtful whether these were objects of traditional culture or the results of the influence of Mallorcans or Portuguese with whom the inhabitants of Gran Canaria had contact since the middle of the 14th century.

Skins

The Canarios used goat skins to make clothes, bags, ribbons, straps and ropes, as blankets on the sleeping areas and to sew their deceased into them before burial. The large number of goat skins that are still in good condition show the skill of the natives in cutting and processing. The hides for a piece of clothing were cut into pieces of appropriate size with stone tools. These were then punched at the edges with awls made of bone and sewn together with intestines, tendons or strips of leather. The finished garments were often dyed with vegetable dyes in red, brown, ocher and yellow, or colored patterns were applied with pintaderas .

bone

The awls that were used to pierce holes for the seam in the skins consisted mostly of bones that were sharpened to a point on one side and rounded on the back. The spatulas that were needed to smooth unfired ceramics and to press patterns into the clay were also made from bone. Some fish hooks made from bone were found.

Jewellery

Little personal jewelery from the time before the conquest has been found on the island of Gran Canaria. Ethnologists offer two explanations for this. On the one hand, it is possible that the Canarios wore Ídolos instead of jewelry. On the other hand, jewelry was not necessary due to the strong painting of the body and the clothing.

The most common material used in the manufacture of personal jewelry are shells. They were pierced in the middle and drawn individually or in larger numbers on a thin leather cord, as is the case with the most important example of archeology on the island, the "Diadema de Guayadeque". Ceramic jewelry is limited to two identical round pieces with a hole in the middle. So far, only three pieces of stone jewelry are known. One is made of beryl and has an irregular cylindrical shape. The surface shows a series of waves that create the impression of a blossom from a distance. The other is an irregularly rectangular plate with a hole in the middle. The third piece is made of calcite . It is a pendant with an approximately triangular shape.

Ídolos

Ídolo de Chil

More than 300 figures known as “Ídolos” have been found on Gran Canaria since the 19th century. Most of the figures are made from baked clay. But there are also some made from stone. In Spanish-language specialist literature, the term Ídolo is preferred over other names, in the knowledge that it is a rather derogatory term of the 19th century that historians have adopted from ethnologists. It was believed that the figures were worshiped by primitive peoples as cult objects that were connected to the deities and thus worshiped as images. There is insufficient archaeological evidence of these mostly anthropomorphic or zoomorphic figures to be able to clearly explain the function that they each had in the old Canarian society. The written records also do not provide any specific information. Various figures were found in living or burial caves or in grain silos, others in places that were certainly considered sacred places. The anthropomorphic representations found on Gran Canaria show a variety of very naturalistic figures and others with rather simplified forms. Zoomorphic representations often occur, even if no specific animal can be recognized. In some cases they resemble dogs or pigs and in other cases birds. Usually these representations are associated with evil spirits, the so-called "Tibicenas".

Pintaderas

Pintadera with the imprint on fresh clay in the Museo Canario Las Palmas de Gran Canaria

Pintaderas are a type of stamp or die made from baked clay. They consist of a frustoconical base that ends with a smooth surface that can be round, square, rectangular or triangular. A shaft or handle, which is often drilled through, adjoins this base area. Honeycomb-shaped, concentric or angular patterns are applied to the surface by notching in the as yet unfired clay. Imprints of the pintaderas can be found on clay jugs, the walls of the houses, the skins in which the mummies were wrapped and on granaries. It is believed that the Canarios also stamped their bodies and clothing with the pintaderas. The most common theories today as to the meaning of the pintaderas is that they represent property stamps that indicate personal property or that of a family. According to another theory, the stamped images of the Pintaderas were a type of amulets intended to deter evil spirits. The pintaderas have only been found on Gran Canaria and on no other island in the Canary Islands. The Museo Canario has more than 200 different pintaderas.

Petroglyphs

Petroglyphs have been known in the Canary Islands since the end of the 19th century , the age of which is difficult to verify using scientific methods. The finds in Gran Canaria are assumed to have been made before the 16th century. Among the motifs of the Canarios petroglyphs, the anthropomorphic figures stand out, in which the genitals are sometimes particularly emphasized. In the case of others who show geometric shapes such as rectangles, squares, triangles or ovals, a connection with both the wall paintings and the pintaderas is evident. Another type of petroglyph are rock inscriptions . Characters were found all over the archipelago. They point to an origin of the Canarios from the area of ​​northwestern Africa. With one exception, these signs have so far only been discovered outside of caves. The meaning of the characters is not clear.

Cave painting

Wall painting in the Cueva Pintada (Gáldar)

Wall paintings from before the conquest have not yet been found on any of the Canary Islands except Gran Canaria. There are various archaeological sites in artificial caves in which walls have been preserved on which red, white and black pigments were applied with brushes made from plant fibers, animal hair or the fingers. The motifs are usually geometric patterns that are repeated. They are very similar to the patterns on the ceramic vases.

The execution of these murals required a special technique. First the wall had to be smoothed. For this it was necessary to fill in the cracks that appear in the tuff layers with clay mud. Then the surface was primed with a solution of clay. After preparing the wall, the design was applied. Before the pigments were applied, the wall was slightly moistened to increase absorption and adhesion. The paintings were applied directly with the fingers or with the help of brushes made from goat hair or rushes. The pigments used were red chalk and fine whitish clay which, after being ground, were mixed with water to make them easier to apply. The black color was not applied to the surface in all cases, it was sometimes not a pigment, but the natural color of the surface.

Decline of culture

It is estimated that at the beginning of the 15th century, a maximum of 60,000 Canarios lived on the island of Gran Canaria. The contact of the indigenous population with European culture had an impact on the Canarios culture. Even if the first missionary efforts of the Mallorcans with the establishment of the Diocese of Telde were peaceful, the aim of the Europeans was "to teach the idolatrous, pagan indigenous people in the true Catholic faith and the honorable Christian customs." So the aim was the previous religion and to eliminate the social structure of the old Canarians. The economic exchange with the Europeans destabilized the basis of the communal and redistributive society of the indigenous people.

The conquest started from Andalusian ports, which were also the starting point of various epidemics. Diseases against which the Canarios had no defense system also played a role in weakening the military resistance against the attackers.

A large number of Canarios were killed in the armed conflict during the conquest of the island. Others were later sold as slaves to mainland Spain and other islands. The native policy of the Crown of Castile was aimed at achieving the integration and assimilation of the vanquished. They should become Castilian-speaking subjects with Castilian behavior. After the conquest, property and water rights on the island were distributed to the victors. To be taken into account, previously unmarried recipients of land were required to marry and settle on these land. This led to a significant number of marriages between conquerors and women, especially from the upper class of the indigenous population. All these factors combined led to the fact that at the end of the 16th century the Canarios culture had disappeared.

literature

  • Antonio S. Almeida Aguiar [et al.]: Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . Ed .: Armando del Toro García. tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-212-X (Spanish).
  • Juan Francisco Navarro Mederos: The original inhabitants (=  everything about the Canary Islands ). Centro de la Cultura Popular Canaria, o.O. (Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Santa Cruz de Tenerife) 2006, ISBN 84-7926-541-8 .

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Hans-Joachim Ulbrich: Death and the cult of the dead among the natives of Tenerife (Canary Islands) . In: Almogaren . No. 33 , 2002, pp. 107 ( [1] [accessed December 12, 2016]).
  2. ↑ Pablo Atoche Peña: Excavaciones arqueológicas en el sitio de Buenavista (Lanzarote) - Nuevos datos para el estudio de la colonización protohistórica del archipiélago . In: Gerión . tape 29 , no. 1 , 2011, ISSN  0213-0181 , p. 79 (Spanish, [2] [accessed May 25, 2017]).
  3. ↑ Pablo Atoche Peña: Consideraciones en relación con la colonización protohistórica de las Islas Canarias . In: Anuario de estudios atlánticos . No. 59 , 2013, ISSN  0570-4065 , p. 527 ff . (Spanish, [3] [accessed May 17, 2017]).
  4. ^ Ilse Schwidetzky: Population biology of the Canary Islands . In: El museo canario . No. 41 , 1981, ISSN  0211-450X , p. 49 (English, [4] [accessed February 13, 2017]).
  5. ↑ Pablo Peña Atoche: Las Culturas Protohistóricas Canarias en el contexto del desarrollo cultural mediterráneo: propuesta de fasificación . In: Rafael González Antón, Fernando López Pardo, Victoria Peña (eds.): Los fenicios y el Atlántico IV Coloquio del CEFYP . Universidad Complutense, Centro de Estudios Fenicios y Púnicos, 2008, ISBN 978-84-612-8878-6 , pp. 323 (Spanish, [5] [accessed May 25, 2017]).
  6. ↑ Pablo Atoche Peña: Consideraciones en relación con la colonización protohistórica de las Islas Canarias . In: Anuario de estudios atlánticos . No. 59 , 2013, ISSN  0570-4065 , p. 527 ff . (Spanish, [6] [accessed May 17, 2017]).
  7. ↑ Juan Francisco Navarro Mederos: The original inhabitants (=  everything about the Canary Islands ). Centro de la Cultura Popular Canaria, o.O. (Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Santa Cruz de Tenerife) 2006, ISBN 84-7926-541-8 , p. 34 .
  8. ^ Alfredo Mederos Martín, Gabriel Escribano Cobo: Los aborígenes y la prehistoria de Canarias . Centro de la Cultura Popular Canaria, La Laguna 2002, ISBN 84-7926-382-2 , p. 52 (Spanish, [7] [accessed September 10, 2016]).
  9. ^ Bertila Galván Santos: Pieles . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 67-69 (Spanish).
  10. ↑ Maximiano Trapero: Problemas de bilingüismo histórico en la toponimia de Canarias . In: Alegría Alonso González (ed.): Actas del III Congreso Internacional de Historia de la Lengua Española: Salamanca, 22-27 de noviembre de 1993 . 1996, ISBN 84-7635-182-8 , pp. 1110 (Spanish, [8] [PDF; accessed July 28, 2016]).
  11. ↑ Juan Álvarez Delgado: Instituciones políticas indígenas de Gran Canaria - El sábor . In: Anuario de estudios atlánticos . No. 27 , 1981, ISSN  0570-4065 , pp. 35 (Spanish, [9] [accessed February 13, 2017]).
  12. ^ Esther Chávez Álvarez: El mundo aborigen . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 12 (Spanish).
  13. ↑ Antonio Tejera Gaspar: Religión . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 86 (Spanish).
  14. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar, Marian Montesdeoca: Religión y mito de los antiguos canarios - las fuentes etnohistóricas . Artemisa, La Laguna 2004, ISBN 84-933620-4-2 , pp. 31 (Spanish).
  15. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar, Marian Montesdeoca: Religión y mito de los antiguos canarios - las fuentes etnohistóricas . Artemisa, La Laguna 2004, ISBN 84-933620-4-2 , pp. 26 (Spanish).
  16. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar; José Juan Jiménez González; Jonathan Allen: Las manifestaciones artísticas prehispánicas y su huella . Ed .: Gobierno de Canarias, Consejería de Educación, Universidades, Cultura y Deportes (=  Historia cultural del arte en Canarias ). Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 2008, ISBN 978-84-7947-469-0 , p. 203 (Spanish, [10] [accessed June 28, 2016]).
  17. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar; José Juan Jiménez González; Jonathan Allen: Las manifestaciones artísticas prehispánicas y su huella . Ed .: Gobierno de Canarias, Consejería de Educación, Universidades, Cultura y Deportes (=  Historia cultural del arte en Canarias ). Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 2008, ISBN 978-84-7947-469-0 , p. 150 (Spanish, [11] [accessed June 28, 2016]).
  18. ^ Matilde Arnay de la Rosa: Arqueología Funeraria . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 39 (Spanish).
  19. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar; José Juan Jiménez González; Jonathan Allen: Las manifestaciones artísticas prehispánicas y su huella . Ed .: Gobierno de Canarias, Consejería de Educación, Universidades, Cultura y Deportes (=  Historia cultural del arte en Canarias ). Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 2008, ISBN 978-84-7947-469-0 , p. 186 (Spanish, [12] [accessed June 28, 2016]).
  20. ^ Matilde Arnay de la Rosa: Arqueología Funeraria . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 39 f . (Spanish).
  21. ↑ Dimas Martín Socas: Habitat . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 43-45 (Spanish).
  22. ↑ Rosa Schlueter Caballero: Rosiana . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 143-145 (Spanish).
  23. ↑ Dimas Martín Socas: Habitat . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 43-45 (Spanish).
  24. ↑ Carmen Gloria Rodrígez Santana et al .: Cueva Pintada . Ed .: Museo y Parque Arqueológico Cueva Pintada. Cabildo de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 2007, ISBN 978-84-8103-548-3 , pp. 24 (Spanish).
  25. ^ Antonio M. Macías Hernández: La “Economía” de los primeros isleños . In: Antonio de Béthencourt Massieu (ed.): Historia de Canarias . Cabildo Insular de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 1995, ISBN 84-8103-056-2 , p. 68 (Spanish).
  26. ↑ María Dolores Cámalich Massieu: Economía . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 47-49 (Spanish).
  27. ^ Esther Chávez Álvarez: El mundo aborigen . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 14 (Spanish).
  28. ^ Esther Chávez Álvarez: El mundo aborigen . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 15 (Spanish).
  29. ↑ María Dolores Cámalich Massieu: Economía . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 47-49 (Spanish).
  30. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar; José Juan Jiménez González; Jonathan Allen: Las manifestaciones artísticas prehispánicas y su huella . Ed .: Gobierno de Canarias, Consejería de Educación, Universidades, Cultura y Deportes (=  Historia cultural del arte en Canarias ). Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 2008, ISBN 978-84-7947-469-0 , p. 153 (Spanish, [13] [accessed June 28, 2016]).
  31. ^ Matilde Arnay de la Rosa, Carlos Emilio González Reimers: Microcerámica aborigen de Tenerifenuevas aportaciones . In: Anuario del Archivo Histórico Insular de Fuerteventura . No. 3 , 1990, ISSN  1134-430X , pp. 191-202 (Spanish, [14] [accessed April 16, 2017]).
  32. ↑ María Dolores Cámalich Massieu: Cerámica . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 51 (Spanish).
  33. ↑ María Dolores Cámalich Massieu: Cerámica . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 51-53 (Spanish).
  34. ↑ María Dolores Cámalich Massieu: Cerámica . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 51-53 (Spanish).
  35. ^ Esther Chávez Álvarez: El mundo aborigen . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 8 (Spanish).
  36. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar; José Juan Jiménez González; Jonathan Allen: Las manifestaciones artísticas prehispánicas y su huella . Ed .: Gobierno de Canarias, Consejería de Educación, Universidades, Cultura y Deportes (=  Historia cultural del arte en Canarias ). Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 2008, ISBN 978-84-7947-469-0 , p. 170 (Spanish, [15] [accessed June 28, 2016]).
  37. ↑ Bertila Galván Santos: Tejidos Vegetales. Madera . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 63-64 (Spanish).
  38. ↑ Bertila Galván Santos: Tejidos Vegetales. Madera . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 63-64 (Spanish).
  39. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar; José Juan Jiménez González; Jonathan Allen: Las manifestaciones artísticas prehispánicas y su huella . Ed .: Gobierno de Canarias, Consejería de Educación, Universidades, Cultura y Deportes (=  Historia cultural del arte en Canarias ). Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 2008, ISBN 978-84-7947-469-0 , p. 170 f . (Spanish, [16] [accessed June 28, 2016]).
  40. ^ Bertila Galván Santos: Pieles . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 67-69 (Spanish).
  41. ↑ María Dolores Cámalich Massieu: Industria Osea . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 71 f . (Spanish).
  42. ↑ María Dolores Cámalich Massieu: Adorno . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 72 f . (Spanish).
  43. ^ Antonio S. Almeida Aguiar [et al.]: Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . Ed .: Armando del Toro García. tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 73 (Spanish).
  44. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar; José Juan Jiménez González; Jonathan Allen: Las manifestaciones artísticas prehispánicas y su huella . Ed .: Gobierno de Canarias, Consejería de Educación, Universidades, Cultura y Deportes (=  Historia cultural del arte en Canarias ). Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 2008, ISBN 978-84-7947-469-0 , p. 119 (Spanish, [17] [accessed June 28, 2016]).
  45. ↑ Pedro González Quintero: Ídolos . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 83-85 (Spanish).
  46. ↑ María Dolores Cámalich Massieu: Pintaderas . In: Armando del Toro García (ed.): Patrimonio histórico de Canarias, Gran Canaria . tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 55-57 (Spanish).
  47. ↑ Soraya Jorge Godoy, Daniel Becerra Romero, Carlota Mora Chinea: ¿Decoración o simbología? signos mágicos de la antigüedad en la cerámica pintada prehispánica de Gran Canaria . In: Francisco Morales Padrón (ed.): XV Coloquio de historia canario-americana . 2004, ISBN 84-8103-379-0 , pp. 2265-2275 (Spanish, [18] [accessed April 8, 2017]).
  48. ↑ María del Carmen Cruz de Mercadal, Teresa Delgado Darias, Javier Velasco Vázquez: Pintaderas del Museo Canario . El Museo Canario, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 2013, ISBN 978-84-695-6874-3 , p. 117 (Spanish, [19] [accessed March 23, 2017]).
  49. ↑ António Tejera Gaspar: Manifestaciones rupestres, I Grabados e Inscripciones Alfabéticas . Ed .: Armando del Toro García. tape 3 . Dirección General de Patrimonio Histórico, Viceconsejería de Cultura y Deportes, Consejería de Educación, Cultura y Deportes, Gobierno, Las Palmas 1998, ISBN 84-7947-241-3 , p. 75-78 (Spanish).
  50. ^ Antonio Tejera Gaspar; José Juan Jiménez González; Jonathan Allen: Las manifestaciones artísticas prehispánicas y su huella . Ed .: Gobierno de Canarias, Consejería de Educación, Universidades, Cultura y Deportes (=  Historia cultural del arte en Canarias ). Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 2008, ISBN 978-84-7947-469-0 , p. 41 (Spanish, [20] [accessed June 28, 2016]).
  51. ↑ Carmen Gloria Rodrígez Santana et al .: Cueva Pintada . Ed .: Museo y Parque Arqueológico Cueva Pintada. Cabildo de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 2007, ISBN 978-84-8103-548-3 , pp. 28 ff . (Spanish).
  52. ^ Antonio M. Macías Hernández: La “Economía” de los primeros isleños . In: Antonio de Béthencourt Massieu (ed.): Historia de Canarias . Cabildo Insular de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 1995, ISBN 84-8103-056-2 , p. 53 (Spanish).
  53. ↑ Antonio Rumeu de Armas: El obispado de Telde . Misioneros mallorquines y catalanes en el Atlántico. Ed .: Ayuntamiento de Telde Gobierno de Canarias. 2nd Edition. Gobierno de Canarias, Madrid, Telde 1986, ISBN 84-505-3921-8 , pp. 96 (Spanish).
  54. ^ Antonio M. Macías Hernández: Nobles, campesinos y burgueses . In: Antonio de Béthencourt Massieu (ed.): Historia de Canarias . Cabildo Insular de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 1995, ISBN 84-8103-056-2 , p. 201 (Spanish).
  55. ^ Antonio M. Macías Hernández: Nobles, campesinos y burgueses . In: Antonio de Béthencourt Massieu (ed.): Historia de Canarias . Cabildo Insular de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria 1995, ISBN 84-8103-056-2 , p. 203 (Spanish).
  56. ↑ Rosa Fregel et al .: Demographic history of Canary Islands male gene pool: replacement of native lineages by European . In: BMC Evolutionary Biology . August 3, 2009 (English, [21] [accessed August 28, 2016]).