Evolutionary emotion research

Joy - an innate emotion with an ancestral background

The Evolutionary emotion research is a late 1980s incurred branch of evolutionary psychology (evolutionary psychology), almost exclusively in the United States is practiced. He starts from the premise that innate ( endogenous ) and thus hereditary emotions of humans are a result of evolution , and explains the effect of emotions in today's humans ( Homo sapiens ) with the purpose that the emotions in question in the ancestral past of the People had.

Evolutionary emotion research is of particular importance in explaining emotions, the effects of which in so-called “ civilized societies ” prove to be harmful or destructive.

The main representatives of evolutionary emotion research include the American evolutionary psychologist David M. Buss and the American evolutionary medicine specialist Randolph M. Nesse .

Note: All other remarks in this article refer to innate emotions only .

Central thesis

According to evolutionary emotion research, innate emotions have developed into their present-day form in the course of tribal history through the interaction of evolutionary factors (especially mutation , recombination and selection ). This happened because the emotions (or the behaviors resulting from them) offered their actors or their relatives survival and reproductive advantages - in general: selection advantages - while conspecifics who suffered from these emotions e.g. B.

generally could not feel ( apathy , indolence ),
in situations in which the emotions would have been beneficial, felt too weakly or not at all ( alexithymia , anhedonia ) or
felt (too strongly), although the emotions (in this strength) were disadvantageous in the relevant situations (e.g. in affective disorders such as phobias , manias , depression ).

Importance of sociobiology

Sociobiology is of particular importance for evolutionary research on emotions , as it also takes into account the relationships between individuals when evaluating the benefits of behavior. The “value” of an emotion results from this

On the one hand from the consequences that an emotion (or the resulting behavior) has for the survival and reproduction of the living being itself,
on the other hand from the consequences that the behavior has on related living beings (e.g. offspring), which also carry a proportion of the living being's genes.

Parallels to other sciences

Evolutionary emotion research sees itself as a parallel to other, mostly biological, scientific disciplines (e.g. morphology , physiology , behavioral biology ), which have viewed and interpreted the structures, functions and behaviors of living things as the results of evolution since the 19th century. The parallels to the evolutionary approach in cognitive research , which applies the evolutionary theoretical approach to the perception apparatus of living beings ( evolutionary epistemology ), are particularly close .

Delimitation from related research areas

In contrast to behavioral research , which studies the behavior (e.g. communication ) of living beings, emotion research focuses on the emotions "behind" behavior. This also applies to non-verbal communication (e.g. innate forms of facial expressions and body language ), in which living beings express their emotions or recognize and understand the emotions of other living beings. Research on evolutionary aspects of non-verbal communication is therefore part of behavioral research and is not part of evolutionary emotion research (see also the term “ expressive behavior ”).

Methodological problems

The statements of evolutionary emotion research are connected with some problems in gaining knowledge:

The emotion underlying a behavior can often only be inferred indirectly, e.g. B. by observing facial expressions (facial expressions) and body language or by subsequently questioning the actor (with all the associated problems of distortion and falsification , such as rationalization , forgetting , glossing over , etc.).

Human behavior is only partly driven by emotions. Many behaviors are also guided by reason ( ratio ). It is often difficult to determine in individual cases what proportion of emotions or sensible considerations make up a specific behavior.

Even if behavior is strongly emotion-driven, there may be no agreement in emotion research as to whether the emotion in question is innate or whether it is acquired in the course of life (see discussion of basic emotions ).

General evolutionary research makes use of numerous material indicators to underpin its theories, for example from morphology (body structure), physiology (functions), behavioral biology, paleontology ( fossils ) and embryonic development . Because of the immateriality of emotions, most of these clues are not available to evolutionary emotion research - a problem that the evolutionary approach to behavioral research also poses. An exception are paleoanthropological findings (e.g. burial places of archaic societies), which allow some conclusions to be drawn about human behavior and their presumed emotional background.

Regardless of which emotions are innate and which are acquired, there is agreement that humans are born with innate emotions. The ability to feel these emotions is therefore stored in the genetic make-up (genes). It follows that the genes that enable humans to experience these emotions, like other genes, emerged from tribal history, where they were subject to the rules and principles of evolution. Statements of evolutionary emotion research therefore result from a transfer of findings from other areas of evolutionary research to the field of emotion research (conclusions by analogy ) without being proven ( verified ) or refuted ( falsified ) in the strict sense .

Appreciation

Despite these methodological problems, it would be unwise to forego evolutionary emotion research. Their evolutionary theoretical justifications are often the only, or at least the most plausible, interpretations of human behavior or the presumably underlying emotions, the meaning of which would otherwise be difficult or impossible to understand. (For examples, see the Evolutionary Interpretations of Emotions section of this article.)

Most important are interpretations of evolutionary research on emotions in behaviors that impulsively and spontaneously made (as sudden, largely unconsidered response to a pulse) or strongly affect-controlled (cf.. Crime of passion ). In the case of these behaviors (e.g. murders), the description of the course of events often states that they were committed “for lower motives / motives / instincts” or “with affect”.

Line of reasoning

The " theory " of evolutionary emotion research consists of the following line of argument :

A living being perceives a situation ( cognition ), interprets it ( interpretation ) and evaluates it ( evaluation ). The evaluation has a reasonable (i.e. rational ) and an emotional (i.e. emotional ) part.
The direction of the emotion (pleasant or unpleasant) signals whether the situation, as interpreted by the living being, is advantageous or disadvantageous for the living being or its relatives. The strength of the emotion reflects the importance of the situation for the survival or reproduction of the living being or its relatives.
The living being reacts to the result of the evaluation with a certain behavior . Emotions thus have a behavior-controlling function:

Pleasant emotions encourage the living being to linger in the current situation or to work towards maintaining the current situation.
Unpleasant emotions encourage the living being to turn away from the current situation or to work towards an end to the current situation. The emotions solve z. B. an aversion or escape behavior to avoid the unpleasant situation or the targeted search for a pleasant situation.

In retrospect, it turns out whether and to what extent the behavior triggered by the emotion was an appropriate ( adequate , suitable, appropriate ) reaction to the situation or not. The more it contributed to the survival or reproductive success of the living being or its relatives, the more appropriate the behavior. In the worst case, behavior that is inappropriate in relation to the situation due to a “wrong”, absent, weak or strong emotion can cost the living being or its relatives their lives or prevent their reproduction.
Which tends greatest opportunities, his genes that enable the feeling a certain emotion to the next generation to inherit , has a living when it

a pleasant emotion (e.g. well-being, pleasure , euphoria ) is felt all the more intensely the more advantageous the situation is for the survival or reproduction of the living being or its relatives, or
feels an unpleasant emotion (e.g. fear , hunger , boredom ) the more intensely the more detrimental the situation is for the survival or reproduction of the living being or its relatives,

and

responds to the emotion with behavior that is appropriate to the situation.

When the genes are passed on to the next generation, the next generation is given the chance to build on the survival and reproductive success of the parent generation, provided that the behavior triggered by cognition, interpretation and evaluation continues to be appropriate to the situation.

With regard to the above points, the following should be noted:

An innate emotion is not represented by a single gene (e.g. a "fear gene").
The object of natural selection is neither the individual emotion nor the emotional “ repertoire ” of a living being, but the phenotype of the living being, i.e. H. the totality of its morphological, physiological, behavioral and psychological characteristics. In this complex structure, emotions play an important, but not the only role.
An emotion is always only one of several components of the chain described above: “situation → cognition → interpretation → evaluation (with reason and emotion) → behavior”. This chain often does not have a rigid, compelling ( deterministic ) course ( reflex ), but in many cases has considerable degrees of freedom.
Only the reproductive success of a living being and its relatives decides whether the genotype , i. H. the genetic makeup of the living being which is passed on to the next generation.

Evolutionary interpretations of emotions (examples)

Using a few emotions, this section describes the significance of these from the perspective of evolutionary emotion research in the phylogenetic past of humans:

Jealousy arises when a conspecific (e.g. rival , brother, sister) competes for the attention or affection of a person who is important for the living being (e.g. reproductive partner, parent) . Through the competition, the conspecific reduces the chances of survival and reproduction of the living being and increases the selection pressure on its genes. The purpose of jealousy was therefore to alert the living being and to drive away the unpleasant conspecifics, to keep them at a distance or to bring about an end to the competitive behavior. (See also: Gender-Specific Causes of Jealousy .)

Cross-cultural studies have shown that the occasional desire to kill is relatively widespread in human thought, even if in the rarest cases it results in an actual attempt at killing. (Common motives are jealousy, hatred or pity for an incurably ill partner.) In addition, murders are usually not committed by morbid outsiders or hardened criminals, but by “completely normal” people. The evolutionary evolution research justifies this z. For example, as follows: In the phylogenetic past, the killing of a reproductive partner who was impregnated by another conspecific, as well as the killing of stepchildren, should prevent the living being from investing resources in raising children who do not carry the genes of the "deceived" living being .

The purpose of the intoxicating feeling of orgasm was to animate the living being to sexual acts, in which the living being passes on its genes to the next generation and thereby ensures the continuation of these genes (see also: Developmental background of the orgasm ).

Further examples: see disgust , flow , envy .

Conclusions

Evolutionary emotion research explains the innate emotions of humans with their adaptive value for the ancestors of today's humans. Evolutionary behavioral research thus points beyond the pure area of psychology (as a human science ) and implies conclusions that reach deep into tribal history and far into animal science (zoology):

The sometimes very complex emotions of today's living beings are likely to have developed in the course of tribal history from less complex or a few simple, elementary emotions ("primal emotions"). In the extreme case, the story of emotions began with just a single elementary emotion. Presumably, however, elementary emotions arose at different times at different points in tribal history. There is no reason to believe that this development is complete.

Cynopithecus niger , who enjoys being caressed

There is no compelling reason to believe that only humans (genus Homo ) are capable of feeling emotions. Although the material ( physiological ) basis for the perception of emotions in humans is only partially known, there is broad agreement that genetically older parts of the brain (especially the limbic system ) play a central role in the generation of emotions . These structures exist not only in humans, but also in a more or less similar form in many animal species . It must therefore be assumed that the latter are also able to perceive emotions.

Experience in biosystematics with morphological and physiological characteristics suggests that the emotional repertoire of living beings (or biological species ) also tends to show greater similarities, the more the living beings (or species) are related in their tribal history. Conversely, the degree of correspondence is likely to decrease with a decreasing degree of family history . - Members of the same species (conspecifics) consequently have a relatively high degree of agreement in their emotional repertoires. - Animal emotions are likely to be all the more similar to human emotions, the closer the animal species is genetically related to humans ( Homo sapiens ). Since animals also go through a phylogenetic development, their innate emotions are also subject to the rules of evolution.

There is no compelling reason to believe that the emotional life of modern humans ( Homo sapiens ) is the most complex of all biological species.

Emotions can have varying degrees of ancestral stability. Stable emotions occur (almost) unchanged in many successive generations. In extreme cases, unstable (or unstable) emotions only occur in a single living being and die out with it if it cannot reproduce. Elementary emotions are usually more stable than complex emotions, as the former are more versatile and prove to be a “reliable guide” even in a changing environment.

In tribal history, there may have been emotions that only a certain biological species was capable of and that were also wiped out with the extinction of that species.

There can be emotions that only a limited number of living beings (e.g. only members of a certain species, in extreme cases only a single living being) can feel.

Further consequences of the evolutionary view of emotions

Evolutionary emotion research makes it possible to accept universal, naturalistic explanations for the occurrence and character of emotions. This opens up further possibilities for scientific research.

The assumption advocated by evolutionary emotion research that people, due to their phylogenetic relationships, have great similarities in their emotional repertoires, also leads to the idea that this can be used to explain an assumption of perspective as well as empathy , compassion, sympathy, and the like.

The assumption, advocated by evolutionary emotion research, that animals are also capable of feeling emotions (e.g. fear, pain) adds an evolutionary-biological justification to animal protection motivated by religion or philosophy and ideology (see also animal rights , animal ethics , pathocentric ethics ) added.

Individual evidence

↑ The seminal essay Evolutionary Explanations of Emotions by Randolph M. Nesse (see bibliography at the end of this article) was received by the American journal Human Nature on November 22, 1989 .
↑ Regardless of this, no uniform designation for this branch of science has established itself in the Anglo-American language area . In the relevant publications z. B. of "evolutionary psychology of emotions" , "evolutionary approach in the study of emotions" , "evolutionary perspectives on emotions" or "evolutionary explanations of emotions" .
↑ Strictly speaking, the phrase “innate emotions” only refers to the genetic makeup (genes) that enable people to experience emotions.
↑ The high level of public interest in such topics should also explain why books by representatives of evolutionary behavioral research are often published by publishers with a popular scientific range.
↑ Number of next generation offspring capable of reproduction

↑ David M. Buss: The Evolution of Desire (see bibliography)

↑ David M. Buss: The Murderer Next Door (see bibliography)

↑ See orgasm as "nature's pleasure bonus for procreation" ( Sigmund Freud )

↑ Even Charles Darwin was of 1872 in his book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (German: The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals ) the view that animals could feel emotions, which parallels the expressive behavior of humans and animals is recognizable.

literature

Books

In chronological order of the first edition:

David M. Buss: The Evolution of Desire. Strategies of Human Mating ; New York (Basic Books) 1994, ISBN 0-465-07750-1 ; (4th revised edition, 2003, ISBN 0-465-00802-X ); German: The evolution of desire ; Munich (Goldmann) 1997, ISBN 3-442-12584-7
Denys deCatanzaro: Motivation and Emotion. Evolutionary, Physiological, Developmental, and Social Perspectives ; Upper Saddle River, NJ (Prentice Hall) 1999, ISBN 978-0-13-849159-8
David M. Buss: The Dangerous Passion. Why Jealousy is as necessary as Love and Sex , New York (Free Press), 2000, ISBN 978-0-684-85081-8 ; German: "Where have you been?" - The sense of jealousy ; Reinbek near Hamburg (Rowohlt Taschenbuch) 2003, ISBN 978-3-499-61442-2
Frank Schwab: Evolution and Emotion. Evolutionary Perspectives in Emotion Research and Applied Psychology ; Stuttgart (Kohlhammer) 2004, ISBN 978-3-17-017188-6
David M. Buss: The Murderer Next Door. Why the Mind is designed to kill ; New York (Penguin Press) 2005, ISBN 978-1-59420-043-4 ; German: The murderer in us. Why we are programmed to kill ; 2nd edition, Heidelberg (Spektrum Akademischer Verlag) 2008, ISBN 978-3-8274-2083-1
Cindy M. Meston, David M. Buss: Why Women have Sex. Understanding sexual motivations from Adventure to Revenge (and everything in between) ; New York (Times Books) 2009, ISBN 978-0-8050-8834-2

Essays

In chronological order:

Randolph M. Nesse : Evolutionary explanations of emotions. In: Human Nature. 1, 1990, pp. 261-289, doi : 10.1007 / BF02733986 .
Denys de Catanzaro: Evolutionary limits to self-preservation. In: Ethology and Sociobiology. 12, 1991, pp. 13-28, doi : 10.1016 / 0162-3095 (91) 90010-N .
RM Nesse: Is depression an adaptation? In: Archives of general psychiatry. Volume 57, Number 1, January 2000, pp. 14-20, ISSN 0003-990X . PMID 10632228 . (Review).
Leda Cosmides, John Tooby: Evolutionary Psychology and the Emotions , in: Michael Lewis, Jeanette M. Haviland-Jones (eds.): Handbook of Emotions ; 2nd ed., New York (Guilford Press) 2000, pp. 91 - 115 ( PDF )
Martie G. Haselton, Timothy Ketelaar: Irrational Emotions or Emotional Wisdom? The Evolutionary Psychology of Emotions and Behavior ; in: J. Forgas (ed.): Hearts and Minds. Affective Influences on Social Cognition and Behavior , New York (Psychology Press) August 18, 2005 ( PDF )

[1] The seminal essay Evolutionary Explanations of Emotions by Randolph M. Nesse (see bibliography at the end of this article) was received by the American journal Human Nature on November 22, 1989 .

[2] Regardless of this, no uniform designation for this branch of science has established itself in the Anglo-American language area . In the relevant publications z. B. of "evolutionary psychology of emotions" , "evolutionary approach in the study of emotions" , "evolutionary perspectives on emotions" or "evolutionary explanations of emotions" .

[3] Strictly speaking, the phrase “innate emotions” only refers to the genetic makeup (genes) that enable people to experience emotions.

[4] The high level of public interest in such topics should also explain why books by representatives of evolutionary behavioral research are often published by publishers with a popular scientific range.

[5] Number of next generation offspring capable of reproduction

[6] David M. Buss: The Evolution of Desire (see bibliography)

[7] David M. Buss: The Murderer Next Door (see bibliography)

[8] See orgasm as "nature's pleasure bonus for procreation" ( Sigmund Freud )

[9] Even Charles Darwin was of 1872 in his book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (German: The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals ) the view that animals could feel emotions, which parallels the expressive behavior of humans and animals is recognizable.