Jewish feminism

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Rabbis at the Torah reading

The Jewish feminism is equated movement with the aim of women in their religious, legal and social status of men. In all important currents of Judaism , from Orthodoxy to Reform Judaism, feminist endeavors have emerged with different views and with varying degrees of success and are continuing unabated.

History of origin

In its modern form, Jewish feminism can be traced back to the early 1970s in the United States, when the first Jewish feminist women's groups emerged as part of the second women's movement.

In 1935, Regina Jonas , who was later murdered in the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp , was the world's first female rabbi to be ordained in Germany.

With Sally Priesand , a representative of Reform Judaism , a female rabbi was ordained for the first time in 1972 .

In 1973 the first American National Conference of Jewish Women took place in New York. The subsequent special edition of Response magazine . A Contemporary Jewish Review published under the title The Jewish Women. An Anthology in 30 articles explored the ideas of the Jewish feminist movement and caused women's groups in the USA, Europe and Israel to question the role of women in Judaism .

In 1974 the international Jewish Feminist Organization was founded in the USA at a second conference .

According to the American religious scholar Judith Plaskow , the most important concerns and protests of Jewish feminists in the 1970s concerned the subordination and marginalization of women in the Jewish tradition. This included u. a. the exclusion of women from prayer groups ( minyan ) , the denial of the right to testify or to apply for divorce in religious courts. Judith Plaskow emphasizes that Jewish feminism is more than just a religious movement, ייִדישקײט (yidishkayt) Jewry encompasses more than religious identity. The transformation of the status and roles of women in religious life is therefore only one of the topics on the Jewish feminist agenda.

Influential authors and writings

The historian Paula Hyman According were two early 1970s in the United States published articles on the role of women in Judaism particularly influential: In The Unfreedom of Jewish Women ( The lack of freedom of Jewish Women ) criticized the German-American philosopher and Jewish feminist Trude Weiss Rosemary the position and unequal treatment of women according to Jewish law. She particularly focused on the consequences of Jewish marriage laws for divorced and abandoned women.

In The Jew Who Was not There: Halakha and the Jewish Woman ( The Jew who was not there: Halacha and Jewish women ) is Rachel Adler - then Orthodox Jew, now a professor of Judaism and Gender at the Hebrew Union College - male and female role models in traditional Jewish faith opposite one another.

With Standing Again at Sinai. Judaism from a Feminist Perspective ( And again we stand on Sinai. A Jewish-feminist theology ) Judith Plaskow presented a synthesis of the previous Jewish-feminist theology in 1991. She explores the question "what happens to the central categories of Jewish thought - Torah, Israel and God - when these are defined by women".

In 1998, Rachel Adler's work Engendering Judaism followed. An inclusive Theology and Ethics , a feminist approach to questions of law, liturgy and heterosexual sexuality. Adler combines and reinterprets Halacha and Aggada (rabbinical history) with a view to a theological and ethical reconstruction of Judaism.

In the German-speaking world, the Swiss medievalist Marianne Wallach-Faller (1942–1997) is considered to be the central figure of the Jewish-feminist awakening. In 2000 the anthology Die Frau im Tallit in Zurich was published posthumously with 34 texts compiled from her estate on the position of women in Judaism, biblical female figures, Judeo-Christian dialogue and anti-Judaism in Christian theology.

2003 The Female Face of God appeared in Auschwitz ( The female face of God in Auschwitz ). This work by the English theologian Melissa Raphaels is the first comprehensive work of a Jewish-feminist theology of the Holocaust. In it, Raphael deals with the question of God in Auschwitz from a Jewish and feminist perspective using autobiographical texts by women who survived the Holocaust. She interprets the forms of sisterhood, here especially the practical caring for one another under inhumane conditions, as images of the presence of God.

Jewish feminist theology

One concept of Jewish feminist theology is the emphasis on the feminine side of God, which should be visible in the siddur (prayer book) and in the worship service.

In 1976 Rita Gross published the article “Female speaking from God in a Jewish context” (Davka Magazin 17), which Judith Plaskow considers to be probably the first article that theoretically deals with the topic mentioned in the title. At the time of publication, Gross himself belonged to Judaism.

The religious scholar Naomi Janowitz and the rabbi Margaret Wenig self-published Siddur Nashim in 1976 , the first Sabbath prayer book to describe God with feminine pronouns and images. The rekonstruktionistische Rabbi Rebecca Alpert commented:

“The experience of prayer with the Siddur Nashim […] has transformed my relationship with God. For the first time I understood what it means to be created in the image of God, to imagine God as a woman like myself, to see you as powerful and at the same time caring, to see you symbolized with a female body, with your womb and breasts - this was an experience of paramount importance. Was this man's relationship with God through the millennia? How wonderful it was to find access to these feelings and insights. "

In 1990 Margaret Wenig wrote a sermon entitled God is a Woman and She Is Getting Older , which was reprinted ten times (three times in German) by 2011 and was based on sermons by rabbis from Australia to California. Rabbi Paula Reimers explained her view as follows: “Those who use the 'God / She language' wish to affirm the femininity of the deity and its feminine aspects by emphasizing what most clearly distinguishes the feminine from the masculine experience. A male or female deity can create something through language or action, but the genuine female metaphor for creation is birth. If God is referred to as female, then this birth metaphor and the identification of the deity with nature and its processes are inevitable. ”The reform Jewish theologian Ahuva Zache confirms that male and female language can be something good if God is spoken of. In the "Torah of the Union for Reform Judaism" she reminds us that God is beyond gender:

“Is God male, female, both, or neither? How should we formulate our prayers regarding the gender of God? ”[...]“ Feminine imagery does not threaten Judaism in any way. On the contrary, it reinforces the Jewish understanding of God, which should not be limited to masculine imagery. Human language used to describe God is always metaphorical. Using male and female imagery is one way of alerting us that all gender descriptions are only metaphorical. God is beyond gender. "

These points of view are also controversially discussed within the liberal currents of Judaism. Orthodox and many Conservative Jews consider it wrong to use feminine pronouns for God. They see it as an intrusion of modern feminist ideology into Jewish tradition. Liberal prayer books increasingly avoid specifically male expressions and try to express themselves in a gender-neutral way. For example, the Siddur Lev Chadash prayer book (1995) of the Liberal Movement in the United Kingdom, as well as the Forms of Prayer (2008) of the reform movement there.

In the Mishkan T'filah , the reform Jewish prayer book, which was published in 2007, the reference to God was eliminated by the previously common personal pronoun "he". When the Jewish patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob are mentioned, Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah are also mentioned.

In 2015 the reform Jewish prayer book "High Holy Days" was published. It is intended as a companion book to Mishkan T'filah and contains a version of the prayer Awinu Malkenu , which points to God as a "loving father" as well as a "merciful mother Other notable changes involve a line from the Reform Movement's earlier prayer book, "Gates of Repentance," which specifically mentioned the joys of the bride and groom. This line was replaced by the phrase "happy couples." under the wedding canopy ”( Chuppah ). For the call of believers to the Torah, in addition to the gender-specific phrases“ son of ”or“ daughter of ”, the neutral phrase“ from the house of ”was offered.

Orthodox Judaism and Jewish Feminism

Orthodox Jewish feminism

Orthodox Jewish feminism, in contrast to Reform Judaism or the Reconstructionists , tries to change the role of women based on the Halacha.

Orthodox feminism works within the halachic order in collaboration with rabbis and rabbinical institutions to develop more inclusive forms of Orthodox community practice and leadership. Orthodox feminism is more aimed at individual issues such as aguna, the promotion of female education, the promotion of leadership positions, participation in ritual acts and the women-friendliness of the synagogues. Unlike other denominations, the Orthodox maintain the division of the synagogue and do not count women as Minyan. The women-only prayer group "Women's Tefilla Group" began as part of Orthodox practice in the 1970s and continues to this day.

New educational programs have trained women in the study of the Talmud and other rabbinical literature, with this study reaching the level of a yeshivah or a kollel for men. These include the Drisha Institute (founded in 1979), the Pardes Institute of Jewish Studies, and the Matan Women's Institute for Torah Studies.

In 1997 Blu Greenberg founded the Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance (JOFA) to advocate the increased participation and leadership role of women and to found a community of like-minded men and women. Among other things, JOFA aimed at the aguna, bat mitzvah, scholarships for women, women's prayer, ritual, leadership roles for women in the synagogue and religious-theological leadership roles for women.

In 1997, Gail Billig became the first female president of a large Orthodox synagogue for the Ahavath Torah Congregation in Englewood, New Jersey, USA.

In 2002 the first Minyanim partners were founded, Shira Hadasha in Jerusalem and Darkhei Noam in New York City. These congregations achieve the maximum possible participation of women in prayer, as far as the Halacha allows. This practice has been criticized in part as incompatible with Orthodoxy, although its advocates passionately insist on the Orthodox nature of its conception. The synagogues are separate and do not count women as Minyan, which is why women are excluded from any part of the service that requires a quorum. Dr. Elana Sztokman, former managing director of JOFA, has presented this in detail in her publication “The Men's Section: Orthodox Jewish Men in an Egalitarian World”. She investigated the contradiction that the partnership Minyan is often defended as orthodox and attacked as non-orthodox. Today there are over 35 partnership minyanim worldwide.

Another event of historical importance took place in 2009 when rabbi “Rabba” Sara Hurwitz became the first officially ordained Orthodox rabbi. Avi Weiss founded a training center for Orthodox rabbis, the Yeshivat Maharat (an acronym for "Morah hilkhatit rabbanit toranit" - rabbinical halachic Torah teacher). Rabbi Weiss initially announced the designation "Rabba" for female graduates, but after the Rabbinical Council threatened to expel him, he withdrew the suggestion and created the term Maharat . The first group of future Maharot graduated in 2013. They were the Maharot Ruth Balinksy-Friedman, Rachel Kohl Finegold and Abby Brown Scheier. In 2015 Yaffa Epstein was ordained as "Rabba" by the Yeshivat Maharat, while Lila Kagedan was ordained as "Rabbi" for the first time.

In January 2013, Tamar Frankiel became President of the Academy for Jewish Religion in California. She was the first Orthodox head of a US rabbinical school. The school is non-denominational, not orthodox.

Ultra-Orthodox Positions on Feminism

The leaders of ultra-Orthodox Judaism commonly refer to all forms of feminism as reformist, non-Jewish, or as a threat to Jewish tradition. An article in the journal Cross-currents (German: “Querströmungen”) states in the criticism of advancing female leadership roles: “The entirety of traditional religious Jewish life, including its old ritual laws and social norms, reflects the values ​​of the Torah, even if they are not are formally codified; every aspect of our thousands of years old way of life in religion, tradition and community order is embedded in halacha or hashkafa principles or based on them. These principles may not be apparent to the uninitiated, but the inability to recognize them does not give permission to reject, abandon, or reform them. ”So the thesis of ultra-orthodoxy is that feminism is changing the Torah.

The ultra-orthodox current is also linked to an essentialist understanding of the differences between men and women, the roots of which are seen in God's will to create. According to this notion, femininity is exemplarily expressed in King Solomon's poem "A Woman of Value". This poem praises a woman for keeping the house in order, looking after the family, and preparing the food. This behavior is admired in women as part of their wisdom, courage, creativity, devotion, selflessness and possibly their keen business acumen.

The main educational concern in this regard is to educate girls and young women, to educate them and to encourage them to become wives and mothers of large families who are committed to the strict way of life of Torah Judaism. Most Orthodoxy women receive their education in the Beis Yaakov schools designed exclusively for them. Their curriculum does not contain any Torah study and no content intended for men who study them in their yeshiva. In some ultra-Orthodox communities, girls 'education in secular subjects such as mathematics is even superior to boys' education, as boys can devote more time to religious subjects and because many women have paid work to enable their husbands to study the Torah full-time or to earn extra income to achieve.

There are no efforts within ultra-orthodox Judaism to train female rabbis or to train women in the Talmud. In the fall of 2015, the Agudath Israel of America , part of Haredic Judaism, rejected requests for ordination of women and declared Yeshivat Maharat , Yeshivat Chovevei Torah , Open Orthodoxy and other groups to be movements of dissidents, similar to others in Jewish history, the basic teachings of the Rejected Judaism. Unlike men, Haredic women are exposed to modern ideas and worldly education. Professor Tamar El-or, in her monograph Educated and Ignorant, on the upbringing and education of women in the Gerer Rabbi Dynasty, examined the influence of co-educational education on the emancipation of women.

Feminist Movement in Ultra-Orthodox Judaism in Israel

In Israel the beginnings of a feminist movement can be found in ultra-orthodox Judaism. During the 2013 general election, Esti Shushan led a feminist group seeking to get women on the lists of ultra-Orthodox parties. The campaign called on women not to vote for parties that exclude women. In the local elections of the same year, three ultra-Orthodox women ran: Shira Gergi in Safed , Ruth Colian in Petach Tikva and Racheli Ibenboim in Jerusalem . Gergi was the only one elected, making it the first ultra-Orthodox city councilor. Since 1993 she has been the first woman on the local city council.

One of the most prominent voices is Adina Bar-Shaloms, daughter of the late Israeli Sephardic chief rabbi Ovadja Josef . Bar Shalom founded the Haredi College of Jerusalem, regularly speaks out on the importance of women's education and the work of women. In 2013 she founded a party exclusively for women in Elad . In 2014, she considered running for the presidency of the State of Israel. In March 2014 she wrote that the feminist revolution had already begun, "the train had already started".

Another voice of the movement is Esty Reider-Indorskys. In March 2014 she announced that she had written popular Orthodox columns under the name of a man, "Ari Solomon". In an article in YNet magazine, Reider-Indorsky stated that a strong feminist movement was emerging in the Orthodox community. She urged non-Orthodox Jewish women to stay out of this internal revolution. “Don't patronize us,” she writes. “Don't make a revolution for us, we make it our own way and we make it better: There are a large number of women lawyers, company founders [...] orthodox women with academic careers, women who drive all kinds of change [...] change will come, he is already there ”.

Functionaries within the Jewish religion since the 19th century

Since the founding of Reform Judaism at the beginning of the 19th century, there have also been efforts by individual women in other currents of Judaism to assume leading roles in religious life.

In 1845 at the Frankfurt Synod of the emerging Reform Judaism, rabbis declared that women belong to the minyan . In doing so, they formally established what had been common practice since 1811.

In 1854 Fanny Neuda wrote the first Jewish prayer book ever written by a woman for women. "Hours of Devotion" was published in the US in 1866 in the English translation "Hours of Devotion". In 2015, a memorial plaque was unveiled in Loštice , where she lived when her husband was a rabbi there.

In 1884, native German Julie Eichberg (Julie Rosewald) became the first American female cantor. She served in the Temple Emanu-El (San Francisco) even though she was not ordained. Her cantor service lasted until 1893.

Ray Frank delivered the Rosh Hashana sermon in Spokane, Washington, on September 14, 1890 . This made her the first woman to preach from a pulpit even though she was not a rabbi.

On March 18, 1922, the American rabbi Mordechai M. Kaplan organized the first public Bat Mitzvah celebration in the USA for girls, more precisely for his daughter Judith. The celebration took place in his Society for the Advancement of Judaism synagogue in New York City. Judith Kaplan read the opening blessing, read part of the Torah section of the week in Hebrew and English, and began the final blessing. Mordecai M. Kaplan, by his own account still a member of the Orthodox branch, joined Conservative Judaism and later became the founder of Reconstructionist Judaism. He influenced Jews from all directions of non-Orthodox Judaism through his theological teaching at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America .

In 1922 Martha Neumark and her father attended a conference of the Central Conference of American Rabbis. She managed to convince the CCAR to ordain female rabbis. In an expert report in 1922, the CCAR stated, “[…] a woman cannot legitimately be denied the privilege of ordination to the rabbinical office.” 56 CCAR representatives voted for, 11 against this statement. But the board of directors of the college continued to refuse to include women for ordination; according to Neumark, six lay people voted against and two rabbis against. Neumark was then only appointed administrative director, she was not ordained, although she had spent seven and a half years in rabbinical schools.

In 1922, Irma Lindheim joined the Jewish Institute of Religion in New York City, which she eventually left for the “greater cause of Zionism”. In 1923 she applied to the institute to convert her status from a “special student” to a regular study in the rabbi program. The faculty, in response to the motion in May, advocated that all women should be admitted to study on the same basis as men.

In 1935 Regina Jonas became the world's first officially ordained female rabbi. The semicha was carried out by Rabbi Max Dienemann , the chairman of the Association of Liberal Rabbis in Offenbach am Main . She then worked mainly as a religion teacher. In 1944 she was murdered in Auschwitz , her work was forgotten for decades.

In 1939, Helen Levinthal became the first US woman to complete full rabbinical training at the Jewish Institute of Religion in New York. Her thesis dealt with women's suffrage from the point of view of Jewish religious law. She only received a master's degree in Hebrew literature and a certificate with an award for her leadership, but not the additional ordination that is usual for men, as the faculty considered such a step premature.

In 1955, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of Conservative Judaism declared women entitled to perform the blessing chants before and after the reading. In the late 1960s, the first Orthodox Tefilla prayer group was organized (on the Simchat Torah holiday ) in the Lincoln Square Synagogue in Manhattan. In 1973, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards passed a takkana (regulation) allowing women to form minyan.

In 1973, the United Synagogue of America (now called the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism), the United Synagogue of America, decided to allow all women to participate in the rites of worship and to exercise their leadership, official and teaching authority and to equate responsibility for community life with men. In 1974 the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards adopted a number of proposals that put men and women on an equal footing in all areas of ritual, including serving as prayer leaders.

Rabbis from 1970

Only since the 1970s have women increasingly been found as rabbis in different branches of Judaism. In 1972, a representative of Reform Judaism received the Semicha for the first time in the USA. In 1974 a representative of reconstructionism followed, in 1975 the first female rabbi was ordained in England, in 1985 a graduate of conservative Judaism for the first time, and finally in 2009 a representative of Orthodox Judaism. With Elisa Klapheck (2009) and Alina Treiger (2010), two representatives of Liberal Judaism were the first female rabbis to be ordained in Germany after the Shoah . Treiger is the second female rabbi to have been trained in Germany. To date, however, resistance to the employment of female rabbis has mainly been found in large communities.

See also

Jewish feminists

The following list of well-known Jewish personalities who hold positions of feminism, Jewish feminism or the Jewish women's movements is arranged in alphabetical order. Naturally, this list is incomplete. 

literature

  • Judith Plaskow: And again we are on Sinai. A Jewish feminist theology . Edition Exodus, Lucerne 1992, ISBN 978-3-905575-67-5
  • Pamela Nadell: Women Who Would Be Rabbis. A History of Women's Ordination, 1889–1985. Beacon Press, 1998, ISBN 0-8070-3649-8 .
  • Rachel Adler: Engendering Judaism: An Inclusive Theology and Ethics. Beacon Press, 1999.
  • Marianne Wallach-Faller: The woman in the tallit. Judaism read feminist . Edited by Doris Brodbeck and Yvonne Domhardt. Chronos-Verlag, Zurich 2000
  • Haviva Ner-David: Life on the Fringes: A Feminist Journey Toward Traditional Rabbinic Ordination. JFL Books, Needham, MA 2000.
  • Danya Ruttenberg: Yentl's Revenge: The Next Wave of Jewish Feminism. Seal Press, 2001.
  • Melissa Raphael: The Female Face of God in Auschwitz: A Jewish Feminist Theology of the Holocaust. Routledge, London 2003.
  • Judith Plaskow: The Coming of Lilith. Essays on Feminism, Judaism, and Sexual Ethics, 1972-2003 , Beacon Press 2005, ISBN 978-0-8070-3623-5
  • Judith Plaskow: Jewish Feminism , in: Rosemary Skinner Keller et al. (Ed.): Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America , Volume 3, Indiana University Press 2006, ISBN 978-0-253-34685-8 , pp. 1220-1228
  • Tova Hartman: Feminism Encounters Traditional Judaism. Resistance and Accommodation. Brandeis University Press, Waltham, Mass. 2007, ISBN 978-1-58465-658-6
  • Elly Teman: Birthing a Mother: the Surrogate Body and the Pregnant Self. University of California Press, Berkeley 2010.

items

  • Trude Weiss-Rosmarin: The Unfreedom of Jewish Women. In: Jewish Spectator , 1970.
  • Rachel Adler: The Jew Who Wasn't There: Halakha and the Jewish Woman. In: Davka , Winter 1971. New edition in: On Being a Jewish Feminist , ed. by Susannah Heschel , New York 1982. ( digitized )
  • Blu Greenberg: Is Now the Time for Orthodox Women Rabbis? In: Moment December 1992. pp. 50-53, 74.
  • Rita Gross : Female God Language in a Jewish Context. In: Davka. 1976.
  • Joel B. Wolowelsky: Feminism and Orthodox Judaism. In: Judaism. 188, 47: 4, 1998, pp. 499-507.
  • Melissa Raphaels: A Patrimony of Idols: Second-Wave Jewish and Christian Feminist Theology and the Criticism of Religion . In: Sophia. International Journal of Philosophy and Tradition, 53 (2), 2014, pp. 241-259. ISSN print: 0038-1527 online 1873-930X

Digitized articles

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Cover "The Jewish Woman: An Anthology" Summer 1973, Issue of "Response: A Contemporary Jewish Review". Table of contents . In: Jewish Women's Archive
  2. ^ Marianne Wallach-Faller: Twenty Years of Jewish Feminist Theology , in: New Paths , Volume 90/1996, Issue 1, p. 3
  3. ^ Judith Plaskow: Jewish Feminist Thought. In: Daniel H. Frank, Oliver Leaman: History of Jewish Philosophy. Routledge, 2003, ISBN 978-0-415-32469-4 , pp. 885f.
  4. ^ Judith Plaskow: Jewish Feminism, in: Rosemary Skinner Keller et al. (Ed.): Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America, Volume 3, Indiana University Press 2006, ISBN 978-0-253-34685-8 , p. 1220
  5. ↑ Marianne Wallach-Faller (1996), ibid. P. 10
  6. ^ Feminist Theology .
  7. ^ Review Dawn Robinson Rose, The Feminist Sexual Ethics Project, Brandeis University
  8. ↑ Felice-Judith Ansohn on: The woman in Tallit: Judaism read feminist , Hagalil online April 27, 2001
  9. ↑ Melissa Raphael: The Female Face of God in Auschwitz. A Jewish Feminist Theology of the Holocaust. (= Religion and Gender), Routledge 2003, ISBN 978-0-415-23665-2 .
  10. ↑ Book Review: The Female Face of God in Auschwitz: A Jewish Feminist Theology of the Holocaust, in: Feminist Theory , April 2005 vol. 6 no. 1, pp. 104-105. doi: 10.1177 / 146470010500600109
  11. ^ Jewish Feminist Theology: A Survey . My Jewish Learning. Retrieved July 17, 2012.
  12. ^ Standing at Sinai . Dhushara.com. Retrieved July 17, 2012.
  13. ^ Frederick E. Greenspahn: Jewish Mysticism and Kabbalah: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0-8147-3336-3 , p. 200, ( books.google.com ).
  14. ↑ Rebecca Alpert: "What Gender is God?" In: Reform Judaism (Magazine), Winter 1991, pp. 28-29
  15. ↑ books.google.com
  16. ↑ huc.edu ( Memento from June 23, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
  17. ↑ Paula Reimers: Feminism, Judaism and God the Mother . In: Conservative Judaism (Journal), 46/1993, pp. 24-29.
  18. ↑ "This genderless God also represents a profound betrayal of the Torah narrative."
  19. ↑ The slimline siddur with a touch of Bob Dylan .
  20. ↑ Siddur Lev Chadash ( Memento of the original from July 5, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.bwpjc.org
  21. ↑ Laurie Goodstein: In New Prayer Book, Signs of Broad Change . In: The New York Times , September 3, 2007. 
  22. ↑ a b c 'Gates of Repentance' replacement advances Reform trends . In: j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California . Jweekly.com. March 26, 2015. Retrieved April 14, 2015.
  23. ^ JOFA: JOFA [Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance ] .
  24. ^ Women and the Study of Torah. ISBN 978-0-88125-690-1 , p. Xiv.
  25. ^ Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance .
  26. ↑ Abigail Klein: Leaders Lift Spirit in Orthodox Women's Section. July 13, 2007.
  27. ↑ Elana Sztokman: The Men's Section. Orthodox Jewish Men in an Egalitarian World. Brandeis University Press, 2011.
  28. ↑ Sara Hurwitz Adopts the Title of Maharat . In: Jewish Women's Archives , January 27, 2010. 
  29. ^ Susan Reimer-Torn: Maharats March Into Jewish World First-ever ordination at Orthodox women's seminary seen as 'sea change,' but steep hurdles persist. . In: The Jewish Week , June 19, 2013. Archived from the original on June 24, 2013 Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . Retrieved February 26, 2014. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.thejewishweek.com 
  30. ^ Class of 2015 . In: Yeshivat Maharat . Archived from the original on December 5, 2015. Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved January 5, 2016. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.yeshivatmaharat.org
  31. ↑ Dr. Tamar Frankiel | Academy for Jewish Religion, California ( Memento of the original from December 28, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / ajrca.org
  32. ^ A b Orthodox woman, a first - Los Angeles . In: Jewish Journal .
  33. ↑ Avrohom Gordimer: Ordaining Women and the Role of Mesorah . In: Cross-currents , June 3, 2013. Retrieved February 26, 2014. 
  34. ↑ Rebbetzin Heller Tziporah : Feminism & Judaism . aish.com. January 8, 2000. Retrieved July 23, 2012.
  35. ↑ Moetzes: 'Open Orthodoxy' Not a Form of Torah Judaism . In: Hamodia .
  36. ↑ Breach in US Orthodox Judaism grows as haredi body rejects 'Open Orthodoxy' institutions . In: The Jerusalem Post - JPost.com .
  37. ↑ Josh Nathan-Kazis: Avi Weiss Defends 'Open Orthodoxy' as Agudah Rabbis Declare War . In: The Forward . 3rd November 2015.
  38. ^ Tamar El-Or: Educated and Ignorant: Ultraorthodox Jewish Women and their World. Lynne Rienner Pub., Boulder, CO 1994.
  39. ^ Nathan Jeffay: Israeli elections: Charedi women refuse to vote . In: The Jewish Chronicle , January 10, 2013. Retrieved February 26, 2014. 
  40. ↑ Haaretz: Next goal of Shas leader's daughter: Israeli presidency Adina Bar Shalom, oldest daughter of Ovadia Yosef and founder of ultra-Orthodox college in Jerusalem, said to be angling for Shimon Peres' job. . In: Haaretz , January 22, 2014. Retrieved February 26, 2014. 
  41. ^ Adina Bar-Shalom: Haredi feminism is already here . Translated by Elana Maryles Sztokman.
  42. ↑ Esty Reider-Indorsky: Dear Israeli women, don't patronize us . In: YNet (Hebrew) , March 9, 2014. 
  43. ↑ s: Hours of Devotion
  44. ↑ Czech author of first women's prayer book commemorated | Jewish Telegraphic Agency . Jta.org. September 4, 2015. Accessed September 4, 2015.
  45. ↑ a b Julie Rosewald: America's first woman cantor. Jewish Women's Archive, accessed May 14, 2016 .
  46. ↑ a b The Forgotten Woman Cantor: Julie Rosewald Now Getting Her Due - The Jewish Week . In: The Jewish Week . Retrieved October 6, 2014.
  47. ↑ Ray Frank: "Lady Preacher" of the West . Jwablog.jwa.org. September 14, 2009. Archived from the original on November 5, 2010. Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved November 19, 2010. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / jwablog.jwa.org
  48. ↑ a b The First American Bat Mitzvah . Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. March 18, 1922. Retrieved April 13, 2013.
  49. ^ Arthur Ocean Waskow, Phyllis Ocean Berman: History of Bat Mitzvah. ( Memento of October 13, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
  50. ↑ a b Personal Information for Martha Montor . Jwa.org. Retrieved April 14, 2012.
  51. ↑ a b c Colleen McDannell: Religions of the United States in Practice. Princeton University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-691-01001-3 , ( books.google.com ).
  52. ↑ Passover a time to join in tradition | Lubbock Online | Lubbock Avalanche Journal . Lubbock Online. March 29, 2010. Retrieved April 14, 2012.
  53. ^ Gender and Judaism: The Transformation of Tradition - Tamar Rudavsky - Google Books . Books.google.com. Retrieved April 14, 2012.
  54. ^ Regina Jonas | Jewish Women's Archive . Jwa.org. Retrieved May 3, 2012.
  55. ↑ - Hadassah Young Women . hadassah.org. Archived from the original on April 15, 2013. Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved January 14, 2014. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.hadassah.org
  56. ^ Rabbis in the United States - Jewish Women's Archive . jwa.org. Retrieved January 14, 2014.
  57. ↑ Rosemary Skinner Keller, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Marie Cantlon: Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America: Native American creation stories. Indiana University Press, Bloomington 2006, ISBN 0-253-34685-1 , ( books.google.com ).
  58. ↑ Pamela Susan Nadell: Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination 1889–1985. Beacon Press, Boston 1998, ISBN 0-8070-3649-8 ( books.google.com ).
  59. ^ A b c d Conservative Judaism in the United States .
  60. ↑ Women's Tefillah Movement .
  61. ↑ Alina Treiger, The Shy Rabbi . Süddeutsche Zeitung, November 4, 2010
  62. ↑ The Story of the Rabbis, Der Tagesspiegel , July 28, 2014