Mexican War of Independence
| date | September 16, 1810 to August 24, 1824 |
|---|---|
| place | Mexico |
| Exit | Independence of Mexico |
| consequences | Dissolution of the viceroyalty of New Spain |
| Peace agreement | Treaty of Cordoba |
| Parties to the conflict | |
|---|---|
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| Commander | |
|
Francisco Javier Venegas |
Miguel Hidalgo † |
| Troop strength | |
| 15,000 | 20,000 regular 100,000 auxiliaries |
The Mexican War of Independence was the armed struggle of the Mexicans against Spanish colonial rule that lasted from 1810 to 1821 . It ended with the independence of Mexico .
Starting position
Viceroyalty of New Spain
Since the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards , today's Mexico has been under Spanish rule; from 1530 it was (together with parts of Central America and the Caribbean) part of the viceroyalty of New Spain . It was ruled by a viceroy who was appointed by the Spanish king and usually came from a high-ranking Spanish aristocratic family. The top administrative posts were filled with men who were sent from Spain and who were native Spaniards ( peninsulares ); from the start, not all of them returned to Europe after their term in office. These founded families and over the years formed an upper class of "local" landowners, merchants and craftsmen who were called criollos (German: Creoles ). The indigenous population played no role in political life.
First Wars of Independence in America
European colonial rule over America was severely shaken for the first time with the American War of Independence . In 1776 the 13 British colonies on the east coast of North America gained independence from England and formed the United States of America . Spain had supported the Americans with weapons and logistics to weaken arch-rival England. Voices in Spain also warned that the independence movement could spill over to other parts of America and endanger the Spanish colonial empire. Prime Minister Jerónimo Grimaldi resigned after his warnings went unheeded.
The second founding of an independent state had less influence on the events in Mexico: from 1791 insurgent slaves fought for their freedom in the French part of the island of Hispaniola and founded the Republic of Haiti .
The first signs of a Mexican struggle for independence appeared in October 1799, when a group of dissatisfied criollos led by Pedro de la Portilla attempted a coup against Viceroy Miguel José de Azanza and proclaimed Mexico's independence. The insurgents, however, were a small isolated bunch that were quickly defeated militarily. The event remained as a machete conspiracy (Spanish: Conspiración de los Machetes ) a footnote in Spanish colonial history.
Crisis of the colony due to the Napoleonic War
Napoleonic occupation of Spain
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The legality of the Spanish colonial administration was called into question when Napoleon Bonaparte occupied Spain in Europe in 1808. King Charles IV abdicated in favor of his son Ferdinand VII . Napoleon kept him imprisoned in French exile and had Joseph Bonaparte proclaimed the new Spanish king. Spain was occupied by French troops.
This met with resistance from the Spanish population. Everywhere in Spain local councils of war and government ( juntas ) were formed, who remained loyal to King Ferdinand and took up the guerrilla war against the French occupiers, which with British and Portuguese support turned into a war of liberation . The supreme organ of the Spanish resistance movement was the Junta Suprema Central , which withdrew from the advancing French to Seville and later to Cádiz . Here the Cortes of Cádiz met to draft a constitution for Spain in the absence of the king and to form a transitional government loyal to the king (the Regencia ).
Effects on New Spain
The news from Spain of the deposition and imprisonment of King Ferdinand reached Mexico in mid-May 1808. It led to a deep rift through the colony, which attached itself to the question of what legitimacy and in what form Mexico should be governed if the mother country Spain was unable to control its colonies as usual.
On one side were the Peninsulares , the Spanish born in the motherland, represented by the lawyers of the Real Audiencia of Mexico ; they insisted on the continuation of the previous order and counted on Ferdinand's return to the throne soon. In the meantime the colonies had to wait after their introduction.
On the other hand, the Criollos ( Creoles ), the upper class born in America, were prominently represented in the Viceroyalty by the Magistrate ( Ayuntamiento ) of Mexico City. They saw the uprising that was forming in the motherland as a model for achieving more local self-determination and independence in Mexico.
There was a wide range of opinions: they ranged from pragmatists who were only looking for a short-term interim solution in order to maintain public order, to resolute representatives of popular sovereignty and independence based on the model of the United States .
For August 9, 1808, Viceroy José de Iturrigaray called all notables of the capital to a consultative meeting. The Creoles took the view that the royal Spanish rule was incapable of acting and that the people of New Spain had to organize themselves and that their own legislation had to be initiated. This position was rejected by the representatives of the Audiencia, New Spain is a colony and without a motherland is not entitled to act, but is still subject to the decisions of King Ferdinand. A politically viable agreement could not be reached.
The situation became more complicated when two representatives of the junta came to New Spain from Seville in mid-August : Manuel Francisco Jáuregui and Juan Jabat demanded that New Spain should follow the junta as the legitimate representative of the legitimate king. A little later, a letter with the same demand arrived from the Junta of Asturias in London, where the former Prime Minister Pedro Ceballos Guerra set up a kind of government in exile and journalistically represented Ferdinand's case against Bonaparte.
For the Audiencia, the juntas' contradicting requirements were a clear sign that they would not give in to either of them, but rather wait for direct orders from the king. The more radical Creoles, on the other hand, saw the signal to no longer obey orders from Europe, but to take the government of Mexico into their own hands.
Viceroy Iturrigaray leaned on the Creole side and advocated the formation of a local junta to lead the government under his suzerainty.
Coup and deposition of the viceroy
The Peninsulares responded with a coup on September 15, 1808. Under the leadership of the merchant Gabriel de Yermo , several hundred armed men broke into the viceroy's palace and took him and his family prisoner. The Creole spokesmen, Primo Verdad, Juan Francisco Azcárate, Melchor de Talamantes and José María Beristáin were also arrested and imprisoned. The conspirators declared the viceroy deposed and named Field Marshal Pedro de Garibay as his successor.
The Audiencia brought an action against Iturrigaray; the trial should take place in Spain in Cadiz. The deposed viceroy was brought to Europe.
Increasing conflicts and initial unrest
Pedro de Garibay tried to pacify the colony again. He proceeded with great severity against alleged representatives of an independence movement, but also allowed the attacks of the victorious conspirators, who had formed a volunteer militia, to be limited. Politically he was of course inexperienced and was replaced in July 1809 by Archbishop Francisco Javier de Lizana y Beaumont .
From 1809 the conflict between Creoles and Peninsular escalated. Lizana feared an open rebellion by the locals and independence supporters and tried to pursue a policy of cautious concessions and compromises. For this reason he came into conflict several times with the Oidores of the Audiencia and with Juan López Cancelada , the editor of the Gazeta de México . At the same time, he sought military security by distributing the concentrated military presence over several locations.
In December 1809 the first riots broke out in Morelia (which was then called Valladolid).
The policy of understanding that Lizana pursued was vehemently rejected by the Peninsulares. They pushed for his removal and, as in the previous year, the Bishop of Michoacán , Manuel Abad y Queipo , wrote a letter of fire to Spain, in which he sharply condemned the viceroy's policy and called for a new man to be sent.
Postponed election of deputies and appointment of Viceroy Venegas
The central junta in Spain had transferred executive tasks to the Regencia in Cádiz in January 1810 . This body prepared the convening of the Constituent Cortes of Cadiz and organized the elections of the representatives. On May 7, 1810, a letter with the government's election papers reached Mexico City. In the same mail came a letter in which the viceroy was dismissed because of his age and poor health. For the time being, the Audiencia should continue government business.
The Audiencia, viewed with suspicion by the constituent assembly, postponed the election of deputies until June and July. At the end of August, the new viceroy Francisco Javier Venegas arrived in Mexico. He took over the office on September 14, 1810.
Rebellion of the Insurgentes under Miguel Hidalgo (1810-1811)
The scream of Dolores
The armed struggle against the Spanish colonial rulers began with the uprising of a group of locals led by Miguel Hidalgo , a priest from Dolores , and Juan Aldama . Hidalgo, a republican-minded, socially committed parish priest, belonged to a secret society ( Guadalupanos ) who wanted to start the armed struggle for the independence of Mexico on October 1, 1810. When the plan of the group around Hidalgo, Ignacio Allende , Juan Aldama and Mariano Abasolo was discovered and betrayed to the Spanish garrison of Querétaro , the rebels decided to forestall the Spanish and to bring the revolt forward. On September 16, 1810, Hidalgo and Allende collected from Dolores with the cry “ Viva México! "And" Independencia! “About 600 comrades-in-arms who followed the cry of Dolores (Spanish: Grito de Dolores ).
Hidalgo's offensive
The number of insurgents quickly grew to tens of thousands, but most of them were poorly trained and poorly armed. On September 21, the insurgents took Celaya non-violently and advanced on Guanajuato , the capital of the provincial administration ( Intendencia ). There the Intendente Juan Antonio de Riaño y Barcena entrenched himself in the municipal granary, which however was captured by Hidalgo's people when the Alhóndiga de Granaditas was attacked on September 28th. The city was then ransacked for two days.
Hidalgo took Valladolid (today Morelia ) on October 17, 1810 without much resistance . On October 30, 1810, the rebels defeated the government troops in the battle of Las Cruces and captured numerous cannons; but they also suffered considerable losses in the process. With the victory of Las Cruces and the artillery that fell into the hands of the rebels, the march on the largely undefended Mexico City was open to them.
While Allende urged to take the capital, Hidalgo hesitated and finally ordered the withdrawal on November 1st. The reasons that guided Hidalgo are still unknown today.
Counter-offensive by the Spaniards
On November 7th, the Spaniards, tactically superior to the disorderly band of insurgents, succeeded in defeating the rebels at Aculco . The troops loyal to the king rallied and, under the leadership of Félix María Calleja del Rey , retook Guanajuato on November 24th.
Hidalgo moved to Guadalajara , where he established his seat of government in late November. He ordered the end of slavery, ended the special taxes of the indigenous population and ordered further reforms; at the same time he approved that the Spanish prisoners who had fallen into the hands of the rebels should be killed.
On January 17, 1811, Calleja defeated the rebels in the battle of the Puente de Calderón . Hidalgo was then deposed by his officers. Guadalajara fell back into the hands of the Spaniards on January 21, 1811.
The leaders of the uprising were captured by the Spanish on March 21, 1811. Allende was shot on June 26th and Hidalgo on July 30th, 1811 in Chihuahua . The severed heads of the leaders Hidalgo, Allende, Juan Aldama and the co-conspirators José Mariano Jiménez and Manuel Santa María were exhibited at the four corners of the Alhóndiga de Granaditas for ten years .
Continuation of the fight (1811-1814)
José Morelos takes over the revolt
Another priest, José María Morelos , assumed the leading role among the insurgents. Morelos had met Hidalgo in the seminary in Valladolid. Morelos and his supporters conquered large parts of Acapulco in December 1810 , but had to give up the siege of the central fortification ( Fort San Diego ) there after the Spanish brought relief troops in January 1811. As a result, he achieved several successes along the Pacific coast and took Chilpancingo and Tixtla in May 1811 . In August 1811 he installed a government junta in Zitácuaro ( Michoacán ). The Spanish troops under Calleja came from the north and in January 1812 captured the city and burned it down completely. Morelos and the rebels moved to Cuautla , which the Spaniards besieged from February 19, 1812.
Constitution of Cadiz
In Spain, meanwhile, the Cortes of Cadiz had passed a constitution. In March 1812 it was proclaimed binding for all Spanish territories - including Mexico. Viceroy Francisco Javier Venegas , a staunch absolutist, rejected any constitution and hesitated as long as possible to proclaim it for New Spain and to grant the liberal civil rights associated with it, such as freedom of the press.
Outbreak of Morelos and capture of Oaxaca
In the first days of May 1812 the rebels dared to break out of the besieged Cuautla. The attempt ends in a debacle for the rebels; the Spanish troops defeated them. But Morelos managed to escape the Spaniards and flee inland. He gathered new strength and raised another small force. In November 1812, Morelos and his troops were able to take the city of Oaxaca without bloodshed .
Liberal phase of the Spaniards
At the end of September 1812, Viceroy Venegas could not avoid putting the Cádiz Constitution into force in New Spain. Debates and discussions developed within a very short time; Publications and pamphlets circulated in large numbers in the capital, where freedom of expression and freedom of the press were fully enjoyed. On November 29, 1812, elections were held for local and district councils, in which liberal and pro-independence candidates achieved success. Viceroy Venegas pulled the emergency brake, revoked all freedoms on December 5th and, at the end of December, instructed Calleja to maintain public order.
At the same time, the news came from Spain that Calleja had been appointed the new viceroy. In March 1813 he took over the office.
Campaign of Gutiérrez and Magee
In parallel to these events, Bernardo Gutiérrez de Lara , a farrier from Nuevo Santander , attempted to liberate Mexico from the north. Gutiérrez had already started the armed struggle against the Spaniards in his home province in 1810 with a small group of about twenty men, but had been defeated militarily. Thereupon he tried to move the US government to support the uprising in Washington . The United States was officially neutral. Nevertheless, there were unofficial and private supporters that Gutiérrez was able to collect in Louisiana . Together with Augustus Magee and Samuel Kemper, he formed a squad of around 300 armed men with whom he marched to Texas from August 1812 . The filibusters took the city of Trinidad, Texas , in September . After being thrown back by the Spaniards (with Magee dying), the Filibusters managed to capture San Antonio in March 1813 . Spanish troops (around 900 men) began the siege at the beginning of June 1813. Although the rebels were able to defeat the Spaniards in a battle near Alazan on June 20 and thereby obtained weapons and provisions from the Spaniards, the Spaniards won in the end. Gutiérrez had escaped in the direction of Natchitoches (Louisiana) on August 6 , the rest of the insurgents were defeated in the Battle of Medina on August 13, most of them being killed. The Spaniards subsequently retook San Antonio, killing anyone they found suspected of the uprising, over 300 people in total.
Chilpancingo Congress
Starting from Oaxaca, Morelos and his troops embarked on a new campaign at the beginning of 1813. At the beginning of April he began again with the siege of Acapulco, which was of essential strategic importance for the Spaniards as a Pacific port for shipping with East Asia (especially with the Spanish colony of the Philippines ). The fighting continued into August when the Spanish defenders of Fort San Diego surrendered. During the siege, Morelos summoned the leaders of the independence movement to a congress of Chilpancingo , which met from September 6, 1813. On September 14th, the congress participants adopted the principles of values for an independent Mexico ( Sentimientos de la Nación ), which Morelos proclaimed on November 6th, 1813 at the congress.
Military successes of the Spaniards
Militarily, the Independence Army continued its advance and attacked Valladolid on December 22, 1813. On December 25th, Christmas Day, the Spaniards, under the command of Colonel Agustín de Iturbide, achieved a clear victory in front of Valladolid. On January 5, 1814, he succeeded again in Puruarán to beat the rebels. Soon after, the Mexican Congress relieved Morelos of military command.
At the end of February, the Spaniards struck another blow against the rebels. During an attack on the congress in Tlacotepec (Guerrero) , the Spaniards fell into the hands of important archives of the congress.
Spain's return to absolutism
Meanwhile in Spain the British, Portuguese and Spanish had militarily defeated Napoleon Bonaparte. In March 1814 King Ferdinand VII returned from exile and took over the rule. In May he revoked the constitution of 1812 and reigned absolutistically. Viceroy Calleja announced the turnaround in June and had the organs of local and provincial self-government dissolved again. At the same time he obtained a general amnesty for all independence fighters who were in Spanish prisons at the time.
With the political turn to absolutism in Mexico the ranks of the conservative Peninsulares joined on the Spanish side , who preferred an absolutist rule and opposed the liberal reforms. Conversely, many liberals and independence advocates felt the return to the old order (for example with the re-invitation of the Jesuits and the reinstatement of the Inquisition ) as oppression and now supported the rebel cause more clearly and vehemently than before.
Weakened independence movement, Apatzingán constitution
Militarily, the armed forces of the independence movement were severely weakened after the defeats of 1814. They lacked trained fighters, tactically experienced officers and equipment. Congress hid from the Spaniards, and the rebel army was militarily unable to take the initiative again.
Politically, the Congress drew up a constitution for Mexico in the course of 1814, which it published in Apatzingán on October 22, 1814 : the Apatzingán constitution .
Phase of Spanish dominance (1815-1820)
End of Congress, death of Morelos
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The independence movement was weakened militarily; it also suffered from internal power struggles. In the south, Vicente Guerrero , one of the officers in the army of Morelos, had brought under his control some areas of land, but the large cities, especially the seaport of Veracruz , were held by the Spaniards.
In the summer of 1815, insurgent officers revolted against Juan Nepomuceno Rosains , who accepted the amnesty of the Spaniards and gave them important information about the structure and weaknesses of the rebel army. With José María Cos , another member of the congress accepted the Spanish offer of grace and left the independence movement.
The remaining members of Congress decided in October 1815 to move their meeting place from western Mexico to the southeast, where the rebel army offered greater security. On the way, a train of Congress members was brought by the Spaniards, in the course of the battle Morelos fell into the hands of the Spaniards. Manuel Mier y Terian dissolved the congress in December 1815, and on December 22nd, the Spaniards shot José María Morelos.
Spanish dominance
In the following years the Spaniards largely dominated the colony; only around Veracruz did Vicente Guerrero keep the uprising simmering with minor guerrilla attacks. Elsewhere, too, local nests of resistance remained, but they could not pose a military threat to the Spaniards. In 1816 Juan Ruiz de Apodaca followed as Viceroy Félix Calleja in office.
Expedition from Mina
In 1817, the pro-independence uprising received a brief encouragement when, under the leadership of Francisco Javier Mina, a group of Spanish liberals from Europe and American adventurers from Louisiana supported the resistance group around Pedro Moreno . After a long siege, the Spanish troops were able to defeat the rebels and kill their leaders.
The turning point in 1820
Liberal Revolution in Spain
At the beginning of 1820 , troops rose against the absolutist form of government of King Ferdinand in Spain . Under the leadership of Rafael del Riego , they succeeded in reinstating the 1812 constitution. The power of the king was fundamentally restricted, the institutions for self-government of municipalities and provinces as well as a parliament came together again.
Reaction in New Spain
In the Spanish colony, this change completely reversed the situation. While the uprisings from 1810 onwards were essentially based on liberal and progressive ideas (with demands for republican government, civil rights and equal treatment of Indians and slaves), now the conservative forces turned against the new line from Spain. Above all, they wanted a strong monarch and the protection of Catholic dominance from anti-clerical forces among the liberals.
Restoration of the Constitution and the La Profesa Conspiracy
A group of conservative clerics and high-ranking personalities conspired to protect Mexico from liberal influences from Europe. The group met at the Oratorio de San Felipe Neri Church in Mexico City, popularly known as “La Profesa” . Some members of the secret society had already been involved in the deposition of Viceroy Iturrigaray in 1808. The conspirators agreed that Mexico should be ruled monarchically.
In May 1820 Viceroy Apodaca took the oath on the constitution; this no longer provided for viceroyalty, but divided the Spanish colonial empire into provinces, which should be headed by a Jefe Politico Superior as a top official. On August 20, the Jesuit Order was prohibited from continuing its activity and the legal powers of the Inquisition were terminated. The La Profesa conspirators then contacted the Archbishop of Guadalajara and planned for their part to proclaim Mexico's independence; they envisaged an infante of Spain as ruler . They succeeded in convincing Apodaca to appoint their confidante Agustín de Iturbide as commander against the insurgents under Vicente Guerrero in the south.
Agustin de Iturbide
Iturbide was a typical representative of the conservative upper class in Mexico. He came from a family of landowners who came from the Basque landed gentry. Trained in a church seminary, he was conservative and religious. After a steep career, the Viceroy had removed him from his command in 1816 after being accused of excessive cruelty to the rebels and corruption.
The union of the armies
Negotiations between Iturbide and Guerrero
According to the plan of the La Profesa conspirators , Viceroy Apodaca sent Iturbide to southern Mexico in the fall of 1820 as a commander in the rank of colonel. His official mission was to fight and defeat the rebels under Vicente Guerrero. He set up his headquarters in Teloloapan . Iturbide entered into secret negotiations with the rebel leader Vicente Guerrero in November 1820 . Despite the contacts between the two leaders, at the end of 1820 there were repeated fights and minor skirmishes between the troops of the Spaniards and the rebels.
The embrace of Acatempan
After exchanging a few letters, Guerrero and Iturbide met personally in early February 1821 to negotiate peace. On February 10, 1821, there was a personal meeting in Acatempan , during which the two military leaders hugged to seal the peace. This event was known as the Embrace of Acatempan (Spanish: Abrazo de Acatempan ). With the peace treaty, Guerrero's rebels submitted to Iturbinde's orders. Iturbide reported the conclusion of peace to the viceroy, who was delighted to receive the news - not realizing that this would seal the end of Spanish colonial rule.
The three guarantees
In February 1821, he and Guerrero drafted the Iguala Plan , also known as the Plan de las tres garantías (Plan of the Three Guarantees), which formulated the idea of a united, independent Mexico in which the Roman Catholic Church and its orders have theirs should retain previous freedoms and privileges. The aim was to unite both the progressive-liberal forces of the independence movement, who were primarily concerned with the equality of all ethnic groups, and the conservatives, who wanted to hold on to the role of the church, under one flag.
Independence of Mexico (1821)
Military situation
After the unification of the troops under Iturbides' command with the rebels under Guerrero, further units of the Spaniards went over to the Mexican army. From a military point of view, the Spaniards no longer had the means to go on the offensive. They left it at that to hold the cities and fortresses that they still controlled.
Deposition of Viceroy Apodaca
The increasingly difficult situation of the Spaniards meant that angry Peninsulares forced Apodaca to resign on July 5, 1821; in his place, Field Marshal Francisco Novella took over command of the colony, insofar as it was still in Spanish hands. Most institutions refused to recognize Novella, who tried by proclamation to set up a people's militia, but could not enforce his orders.
Advance of the Mexican Army
Meanwhile, more and more cities fell to the rebels. On August 3rd, Iturbide and Guerrero took Puebla , the second largest city in Mexico at the time.
Landing of Juan O'Donojú
At the end of July 1821, Juan O'Donojú landed in Veracruz, who should have taken over the administration of Mexico as a representative of the new liberal Spanish government. On landing, however, he had to realize that only the Fort San Juan de Ulúa , which lies in front of the city, was ruled by the Spaniards, but the city itself was in the hands of the Mexicans.
Treaty of Cordoba
On August 24, 1821, Itúrbide, as head of the new government council, signed the Treaty of Córdoba with the Spanish viceroy Juan O'Donojú , which implemented the Plan de Iguala and sealed the independence of Mexico at a high price: the Spaniards withdrew but left theirs Generously compensate property in Mexico. Since the Spanish owned the best soils in the country, Mexico quickly bled to death because of this contract clause - with consequences for the rest of history in the 19th century.
Mission Novellas
After the conclusion of the Treaty of Cordoba, O'Donojú consulted with the remaining military leaders on the Spanish side, Pascual Liñán , José Davila and Francisco Novella. Novella handed over his powers to him on September 13th. A continuation of the war was militarily pointless, and so Novella opened the gates of Mexico City and let the army of Iturbides and Guerrero move into the capital on September 27, 1821.
Celebration of independence
On September 28th, the independence of Mexico was solemnly proclaimed again. O'Donojú, who died of pleurisy soon after, was one of the signatories of the declaration.
aftermath
In December 1821 the elections for the Mexican Congress took place, which was constituted in February 1822. Soon after, it was learned in Mexico that King Ferdinand VII and the Cortes of Spain did not recognize the Treaty of Cordoba and the independence of Mexico. Contrary to the Iturbide plan, neither King Ferdinand nor any member of the royal family was willing to lead independent Mexico as monarch.
After much pressure and demonstrations in his favor, Iturbide declared himself ready in May 1822 to be crowned Emperor of Mexico .
public holidays
To this day, some commemorative days associated with the War of Independence are celebrated as holidays in Mexico.
The beginning of the independence struggle with the " Grito de Dolores " is celebrated as a national holiday on September 16. In the penultimate year of his presidency, each Mexican president takes part in celebrations in Dolores to commemorate the beginning of the fight. Incidentally, Dolores describes itself today as Dolores Hidalgo and "forge of independence", the neighboring town of San Miguel de Allende as the "cradle of independence". May 8th is celebrated as the anniversary in honor of the birthday of Miguel Hidalgo (1753); September 30th as the anniversary in honor of the birthday of José María Morelos; November 6th is a holiday in honor of the proclamation of independence by the Congress of Chilpancingo (1813).
See also
- Mexican Revolution (1910-1929)
Literature and sources
- Julio Zárate: La Guerra de Independencia . In: Vicente Riva Palacio (ed.): México a través de los siglos . 3rd volume. Ballesca & Comp Editores, Mexico City 1880 (Spanish, archive.org [accessed January 20, 2016]).
- Fernando Orozco: Gobernantes de México . 3. Edition. Panorama Editorial, Mexico City 2004, ISBN 968-38-0260-5 (Spanish, limited preview in Google Book Search).
- Christon I. Archer (Ed.): The Birth of Modern Mexico (1780-1824) . Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD, USA 2007, ISBN 978-0-7425-5602-7 (English, limited preview in Google Book Search [accessed January 12, 2016]).
- Timothy J. Henderson: The Mexican Wars for Independence . Hill and Wang, New York City, NY, USA 2009, ISBN 978-0-8090-9509-4 (English, limited preview in Google Book Search [accessed January 12, 2016]).
- Jaime E. Rodríguez O .: "We Are Now the True Spaniards". Sovereignty, Revolution, Independence, and the Emergence of the Federal Republic of Mexico, 1808-1824 . Stanford University Press, Stanford 2012, ISBN 978-0-8047-8463-4 (English, limited preview in Google Book Search).
- Anthony McFarlane: War and Independence in Spanish America . Routledge, New York City, NY, USA 2014, ISBN 978-1-85728-782-0 (English, limited preview in Google Book Search).
- Barbara H. Stein, Stanley J. Stein: Crisis in an Atlantic Empire: Spain and New Spain 1808-1810 . Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD, USA 2014, ISBN 1-4214-1425-2 (English, limited preview in Google Book Search [accessed November 2, 2015]).
Web links
- Latinamerica-studien.at
- tamu.edu … “Sons of DeWitt Colony Texas” with a website about José Maria Morelos y Pavón. (English)