Scandinavianism
Scandinavianism is the name for a political movement that aimed at rapprochement or unification of the Scandinavian countries in the 19th century . A possible goal was the connection of Denmark to the then existing Swedish-Norwegian union.
The background to this movement was the fear of Pan-Germanism originating in Germany and the fear of an expansion of the Russian Empire . The movement was mainly supported by academics, students and artists. It reached a climax during the German-Danish wars of 1848-1851 and 1864 , when Swedish and Norwegian volunteers moved on the side of Denmark in the wars for Schleswig ( Sønderjylland ).
The beginnings
The first beginnings can already be found in the 18th century in the scientific and cultural circles of Denmark and were an outgrowth of the “world citizenship”. The conflicts between the Scandinavian countries - such as the Danish-Swedish wars for Skåne , Halland and Blekinge in the 17th and 18th centuries and ultimately the loss of these areas to Sweden - hardly played a role anymore; Instead, they wanted to see themselves as “Scandinavian brothers”. The word “Scandinavian” gradually came into common vocabulary. This section is also referred to as “pre-Scandinavianism”. The cooperation in the League for Armed Neutrality and the visit of King Gustav III were important. of Sweden in Copenhagen in 1787, although Sweden and Denmark were again at war with each other in 1788. In 1792 the Danish professor Frederik Sneedorff gave a lecture in the "Nordic Society" in London on the importance of the unification of the three Nordic countries. In 1796 the "Nordic Literature Society" (Skandinavisk literatur-selskab) was founded in Copenhagen. In the same year the first Scandinavian magazine, Scandinaviske Museum, appeared . The society was in dissolution from 1839 and ended in 1850. In the meantime, other, more Scandinavian societies had emerged. But around 1800, especially due to the Napoleonic Wars and the Danish-Swedish War, this development stopped temporarily. The separation of Norway from Denmark and turning to Sweden in the Peace of Kiel initially ended all Scandinavianism. But the cultural connections, especially in the literary field, never completely broke off.
The new beginning
In 1828 and in the following years, Scandinavianism first spread among the students and professors of Copenhagen , Lunds and Uppsala . One speaks of actual Scandinavianism as opposed to pre-Scandinavianism only when it comes to the time after 1830, and it had its origin in Denmark. The Dane Frederik Barfod , an enthusiastic supporter of Scandinavianism, founded the Nordic newspaper Brage og Idun , and in 1839 the “Scandinavian Natural Research Society” held its first joint meeting in Gothenburg. In Sweden, this coincided with the liberal efforts that were directed against the tendency of King Karl Johan of Sweden to rule the state on his own initiative and his good relationship with the absolutist tsarist empire. The king therefore wanted nothing to do with Scandinavianism. In the 1830s, the “National Liberals ” appeared in Denmark, led by Orla Lehmann and Carl Ploug . They published the newspaper Fædrelandet . It was initially about the integration of the Duchy of Schleswig into the Danish state. Schleswig was a Danish fiefdom with the king as the ruling duke, but as a duchy it was formally outside the actual kingdom. It was believed that a stronger connection between Schleswig and Denmark would require the support of the other Nordic states - especially Sweden - and the defense of the Eider border was declared a common Scandinavian task. In Sweden, Scandinavianism was also obvious due to the tense relationship with Russia. In contrast, it was less popular in safe Norway and only became important after 1840. With the death of the rivals Karl Johann von Sweden (1844) and Christian VIII. Von Denmark (1848) the chance for reconciliation and cooperation opened up. The behavior of the Scandinavian countries in the war of 1848–1851 showed, however, that the political landscape was completely unsuitable for such goals. In a speech in 1862, Ploug stated that the term “Scandinavianism” concealed completely heterogeneous goals: some wanted a dynastic unity, others not; Some wanted a whole state with a Union parliament or even a single people and language, others were more modest and only advocated the abolition of capital letters in Norwegian and Danish and the introduction of Swedish Å , as Ploug sarcastically remarked.
These efforts met with the sympathy of Swedish students first, then also in Norway. It was the time of "student Scandinavianism". It began in 1838 with a Danish-Swedish student meeting on an ice rink on Öresund . This was followed by a series of meetings between students from Copenhagen and Lund . Central people at that time were Frederik Barfod, Carl Ploug and Orla Lehmann. During a visit by students from Lund in 1842, Frederik Barfod gave a speech about Scandinavian unity and freedom. In 1843 a large meeting of students from Copenhagen and Lund took place in Uppsala. On the way there, Ploug gave a high-profile speech in Kalmar in which he asked Sweden to take part in the battle for Schleswig, referring to the loss of Finland to Russia. The speech was printed in Fædrelandet , but confiscated. Ploug was charged by the Danish authorities for fear of Russian reactions, but he was not convicted. In his defense, Ploug called for a Nordic defense community and a customs union.
In 1843 a "Scandinavian Society" was formed in Copenhagen. Political activities and discussions were expressly prohibited in the company's approval. The number of members rose rapidly to 900. They gave lectures, wrote a Scandinavian dictionary and founded a library. In the same year a Scandinavian club was founded in Uppsala with a similar goal. In 1845 another meeting took place in Copenhagen with the participation of students from all three Scandinavian countries. Orla Lehmann gave a sparkling speech at Copenhagen City Hall in which he conjured up the common history. He got the students to swear a "blood brotherhood" between the fatherlands. Given the political conditions at the time, however, the vision was impracticable, and Lehmann was charged with a crime of majesty. But he twisted himself out of the way by excluding dynastic questions in his defense and referring only to the unification of law and the customs and mint union. His speech, however, had long after-effects in the history of Scandinavianism, because this brought the defense of Schleswig against Prussia into the ideas of Scandinavianism.
Scandinavianism was based on the idea of common ancestry and a common cultural heritage. Efforts were made to intensify the connection between the Scandinavian universities. Lysander, a lecturer at Lund University, complained that some of the professors knew each other, and he referred to the meetings of naturalists in this context. But the universities themselves are too little known to one another, and he called for common institutions. This proposal was taken up 45 years later by the Nordic academic meetings. From 1854 to 1864 the Nordisk Universitets-Tidskrift appeared as the first step. It was published by the four universities of Christiania, Copenhagen, Uppsala and Lund. The magazine was continued from 1866 to 1871 as a more Scandinavian organ under the name Nordisk Tidskrift för Politik, Ekonomi och Literatur . 1900–1906 it became the Nordisk Universitets-Tidskrift . In the Scandinavian movement, university collaboration was widely seen as the nucleus for the great goal of Scandinavian unification. The logo of Scandinavianism was the three-leaf clover with an inserted triangle, which had been developed by the first editor of the Nordisk Universitets-Tidskrift Martin Hammerich . It was quickly accepted and was on many flags of the Scandinavian student meetings of the time.
When Denmark finally lost the war against Prussia and Austria in 1864, the Peace of Vienna came to a settlement of the Schleswig-Holstein question, which ended political Scandinavianism. But the bitterness of the defeat led to the emergence of associations that continued to cultivate Scandinavianism: in Denmark "Nordisk samfund", in Sweden "Nordiska nationalföreningen" and in Norway "Skandinavisk selskab". At the same time, the joint specialist congresses expanded.
In 1846 Carl Jonas Love Almqvist gave a lecture to “Det Skandinaviske Selskab”: Om skandinavismens utförbarhet , in which he developed one of the first practical programs: equality of constitutions, customs union, joint development of the law, coinage and postal community and an offensive or defensive alliance of the three northern kingdoms. This program remained part of the Scandinavian program with variations.
The early Scandinavian societies were short-lived; the Copenhagen Society was dissolved in 1856. In 1864, however, new associations were founded.
The "Skandinavisk Selskab" in Christiania was founded on May 31, 1864 and was a reaction to the decision of the Storting about the reservation in the budget for the military. In both Norway and Sweden, the reservation was made that a great power would support Denmark. That was the way one could evade unwanted war involvement. Most of the members of the society came from the university and civil service circles in Christiania. Many of them were staunch supporters of Scandinavianism and had previously attended student meetings. The leading men were Michael Birkeland , Ole Jacob Broch , Ludvig Kristensen Daa and Torkel Halvorsen Aschehoug . The declared program was to bring about a closer political connection between these peoples while preserving the independence of each people. There was a guest lecture regulation between the Scandinavian universities, even if the state funding was rejected by the anti-Scandinavian Storting. However, the club had little support from the population. This made itself felt in the dispute over the revision of the Union Act with Sweden in 1867. The association worked for a closer union with Sweden, in which Denmark was later to be included. Other supporters of Scandinavianism in Norway, such as Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson and Bernhard Dunker , opposed the association and criticized its premature response to the Swedish ideas about the development of the Union. His complaints about the refusal to participate in the Danish-German war and considerations to recapture Schleswig made him unpopular.
Nordiska Nationalföreningen
On September 6, 1864, the association “Nordiska Nationalföreningen” was founded in Stockholm. He soon got a department in Lund and a sister association "Nordisk Förening" in Gothenburg. The aim was to work for a political association for the protection of Nordic nationality and freedom in the form of a Nordic federation with a common foreign and defense policy. The association should get in touch with the respective associations in Norway and Denmark. The central person was August Sohlmann , editor of the newspaper Aftonbladet . With the first public appearance one waited until one had 300 members. In March 1865 the time had come. The opening speech dealt with the possibilities of a common Scandinavian defense system. Later, the society proposed to the Reichstag to improve cooperation in the field of post. From 1867 a Scandinavian postal union with common tariffs was founded.
Nordisk Samfund
Scandinavianism was not very popular in Denmark after 1864. In 1868 it was one of the main points of contention between the political parties. The more left-wing forces tended to cling to Scandinavianism. Carl Rosenberg was the driving force behind the founding of the “Nordisk Samfund” association . Ploug was just waiting. The aim was to use all legal means to establish the greatest possible community between the three Nordic empires and to prepare for their merger, while internal independence was to be preserved. The association went public on November 17, 1866 with 1,000 members. In 1868 a nationwide rallying campaign was launched. There were 25 meetings, but the success was modest.
Brödrafolkens väl
"Brödrafolkens väl" (dt. The well-being of the brother people ), the motto of King Oscar II until 1905, was the name of a Swedish-Norwegian association. In Norway it was called "Broderfolkenes vel". His aim was to deepen the mutual understanding between the two peoples. It was founded by A. Lange, one of the curators of the Eidsvoll Museum, on the occasion of the union celebration in 1902. At the constituent meeting on Holmenkollen near Christiania on April 14, 1903, the king's motto was chosen as the name. There was a Swedish and a Norwegian department with separate administration. They wanted to meet alternately in plenary assemblies in the two countries on special occasions. The only general assembly took place in Stockholm in 1904. The Swedish division was disbanded on October 31, 1906, the Norwegian division on December 15, 1906. In the end, the association had around 3,500 members, evenly distributed between the two countries. The Norwegian department donated its assets to a fund designed to promote understanding and relationships between the peoples of the Scandinavian peninsula when the time came. Nothing is known about the ultimate whereabouts of the money.
The most important Scandinavian magazine was Nordisk tidskrift för politik, vetenskap och ekonomi , which appeared in Lund from 1866 to 1870/1871. It contained contributions from all three Scandinavian countries. From Norway, Sophus Bugge was one of the main authors. The magazine brought news from the national associations, literature reviews and articles of general Scandinavian interest, also on geopolitical and historical questions. Nordisk Samfund published a series in Denmark and Norden magazine appeared in Norway . In 1877/1878 the Nordisk tidskrift för vetenskap, konst och industri was published as an emphatically Scandinavian organ .
The political development
With the German-Danish War of 1864 and above all the loss of the Duchy of Schleswig to Germany, the Scandinavian movement weakened.
When King Frederick VII, under pressure from the Danish National Liberals , proclaimed the end of Danish absolutism and announced a common constitution for Denmark and the duchies (i.e. the entire Danish state), the German national liberal movement broke out in the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein , which was also supported by the Frankfurt National Assembly in the Paulskirche. Friedrich turned to the Kingdom of Sweden for help and was supported by the local press and that of Norway.
Both the Swedish and Danish royal families and leading politicians began to discuss the merger of the three Scandinavian countries. The aim was to counterbalance the power of Russia in the east and Germany in the south. It was believed that it would be easiest if the house of Bernadotte in Sweden were to ascend the Danish throne after the death of the childless Frederick VII of Denmark. In the conferences in London in 1850 and 1852, the Schleswig-Holstein question was settled and at the same time a regulation of succession was determined that excluded a common king for Denmark and Sweden.
In 1856 King Oskar gave several speeches to students about the unification of Scandinavia. His sentence "From now on a war between the Scandinavian brothers is impossible" quickly flowed into many later speeches. Danish-Swedish secret negotiations began on a Nordic defense alliance. But they came to no conclusion. Denmark rejected a Nordic union state. On the other hand, the Norwegian and Swedish governments made military support for Denmark dependent on one of the great powers also providing assistance. She also bothered that Holstein was not included. In Norway, the peasants were particularly opposed to military support from Denmark. Thus in 1857 the plan for a defense alliance had failed. Sweden held back as long as the Danish heartlands were not attacked. Political Scandinavianism was thus hit at the core.
There was rapprochement between Russia and France. The French Foreign Ministry warned against becoming part of Scandinavian illusions, and the new Swedish cabinet took a markedly anti-Scandinavian stance.
In the German-Danish War of 1864, which led to the loss of Schleswig and Holstein, Denmark felt abandoned by the rest of the Scandinavians. Christopher Bruun gave fiery speeches in the student association, but at most a few student volunteers came to Denmark to support. Since Norway was still dominated by Sweden, the disappointment was mostly against Sweden. These events weakened Scandinavianism in Denmark and ended political Scandinavianism. The term “Scandinavianism” was avoided from then on. But the real end came only after the Franco-German War and the establishment of the Empire in 1871. The term was last used in Fædrelandet in 1871.
At the turn of the 20th century, Scandinavianism flourished again, known as New Scandinavianism. New Scandinavian societies were established and joint congresses took place again. The program was consistently shaped by cultural Scandinavianism. But they had only limited popular support, most likely in the academic milieu of Denmark and Sweden. After all, the Norwegian-Swedish union dispute was smoldering, and growing nationalism was noticeable in both countries. Therefore, the meetings between Norwegians and Swedes were mainly about the relationship between the two countries. The Norwegians, especially the left, advocated equality within the Union, while the Swedish side, especially the national conservatives, emphasized Sweden's supremacy , referring to the Kiel Treaty .
In 1895 the consulate dispute and the flag dispute broke out. Norway had a merchant fleet three times the size of Sweden and pushed for its own consular post abroad. Since the king refused, Norway prepared for war. The flag was about having a Norwegian flag with no Union field. The king also refused this. The constitutional veto was overcome by three identical resolutions by the Storting. Both of these led to a strong cooling between the countries. But between 1902 and 1905 there was a rapprochement again. The whole development inhibited political Scandinavianism and at the same time encouraged cultural Scandinavianism in response to it. In addition, the Russification policy of the Tsarist Empire in Finland and the German minority policy in Schleswig stimulated interest in better cooperation in Denmark and Sweden. In Norway, on the other hand, skepticism prevailed. Scandinavianism received new nourishment from the expulsion of the Danish population from the areas conquered by Germany in 1864 and the dissolution of the Finnish parliament by the tsar in 1899. The foreign enemy images became an integral part of Scandinavian rhetoric.
The so-called “old Scandinavianism” began to be set apart as illusionary and the term “New Scandinavianism” (Nyskandinavisme) and special terms such as “Educational Scandinavianism”, “Economic Scandinavianism”, “Technical Scandinavianism” were created. New Scandinavianism was introduced in 1899 to distinguish it from old political Scandinavianism. A proposal was also made under the direction of the lawyer Julius Lassen to create a common Nordic civil code. But even then, the Norwegian Bernt Lie realized that the new Scandinavian philosophy had essentially no other goal than the old one. What one has learned from Scandinavianism is the fear of Nordic unity fantasies. The central question in Norway was the relationship with Sweden. As long as the Norwegians are considered the worse people there, it is dishonorable for Norway to enter into any union, be it with Sweden or with Denmark. The existing union with Sweden must first be dissolved. Then a Swedish-Norwegian defense community could be envisaged, better still a Nordic neutrality association. The skepticism in Norway against Scandinavianism was great. One of the few defenders of importance was Sophus Bugge, who in 1903 gave a speech “Samholt i Norden” to students in Christiania, which appeared as a special edition in all Scandinavian countries and attracted a lot of attention. As a linguist, he resorted to the originally common language and represented an apolitical Scandinavianism that aimed not at unity, but rather unity and mutual understanding. The response was consistently positive even in Norway.
Women were also active in the new Scandinavian era. They were very welcome in the movement, because many were educators who were to influence the citizens of the next generation. Ellen Key published Svensk eller Storsvensk Patriotism in 1899 ? in which she came to the conclusion that the prerequisites for progress in patriotism could only be achieved once the Swedish-Norwegian union dispute had been resolved. The statements met with protest in Sweden. In 1906, after the dissolution of the union, she held on to her vision of fraternization in the writing Några tankar om skandinavismens Fremdtid ( Eng . Some Thoughts on the Future of Scandinavianism ) despite the now erupted Swedish hostility towards Norway. In a speech on December 7, 1905 in Stockholm, she called on the Swedes to abandon the constant race among the Scandinavian nations and to reconsider cooperation. The long-term goal would have to be the United States of Europe .
The collapse in 1905
The dissolution of the Swedish-Norwegian Union on June 7, 1905 led to the collapse of Scandinavianism. Most of the congresses and meetings were canceled one after the other. Although official Norway and Sweden behaved correctly, there was a widespread rejection of any civil cooperation in Swedish society. The anger was directed against both Norway and Denmark. The enthusiasm turned into distancing and even contempt. He now turned to the internal consolidation of the Swedish nation. But some encounters remained. So there was a school meeting in Copenhagen in autumn 1905. Other meetings were held, but boycotted by Norway or Sweden, such as the historians' congress in Lund in June 1905. The economic encounters such as the meeting of the Nordic "Shipowners Association" and the "Nordic Timber Trade Union" remained. In Dals-Ed a religious Swedish-Norwegian meeting with a common prayer for peace was held. Many of Sweden's most enthusiastic supporters of Scandinavianism have now become its fiercest opponents. On the other hand, the Norwegian and Danish sides emphasized that the dissolution of the Union was a prerequisite for better cooperation between now equal partners. The Swedish bitterness was due not only to the dissolution of the union as such, but also to the way it was perceived as a breach of trust. Because of the Norwegian fortifications on the Swedish border, a war between the two countries threatened. Eventually it became a civic duty in Norway to withdraw from Scandinavian cooperation. The public pressure to take this line uncompromisingly grew more and more. The first boycott hit the Nordic Games in Stockholm in February 1905, although many spoke out against mixing politics and sport.
Even after June 7, 1905, there were still a few convinced representatives of Scandinavianism in Sweden. Ellen Key, Carl Lindhagen, Fridtjuv Berg and Adolf Hedin were the most important. But they were pretty isolated. The anti-Scandinavian course prevailed.
The foreign Scandinavian clubs were also affected. The conflict did not hit them until autumn 1905 and spring 1906. The Norwegian and Swedish Americans celebrated together in Minneapolis. King Oscar and President Roosevelt sent greetings. It was the first and last joint celebration. In Berlin, Hamburg, London, Paris and Rome, the Norwegians left the clubs, and these were renamed Swedish clubs. But in Hamburg at the same time the “Gustav Adolfs Church” was built as a Scandinavian seaman's church with a seaman's home. There were also seamen's homes in Liverpool, Hull, Rotterdam and Marseille.
Tensions also arose between Sweden and Denmark. The Danes noted schadenfreude about the dissolution of the union and a sympathy for Norway coupled with a hatred of Sweden, especially under the impression of the negotiations about the election of the Danish Prince Carl as Norwegian king.
At the coronation of the Norwegian king in Trondheim in June 1906, Sweden was represented with the smallest possible delegation. After the death of Oscar II in 1907, people in Sweden wanted Norway to keep their diplomatic representation as small as possible. Norway's treaty of November 12, 1907 with the great powers Germany, Russia, France and Great Britain on a guarantee of its integrity was viewed as an anti-Swedish act, although no nation is mentioned in the treaty, and it made relations even worse.
There was also a break between the royal houses, which lasted until the Epiphany in Malmö in 1914. The opponents were close relatives. The Swedish King Oskar II was the great-uncle of the Danish prince and later King Carl, crowned as Håkon VII. They did not meet again from 1905, apart from one meeting in the autumn of 1906. The Danish King Christian IX. died in January 1906. His funeral became a problem. Håkon VII had to travel incognito through Sweden, and King Gustav did not come, but his sons. The important Epiphany meetings took place in Malmö in 1914 and in Christiania in 1917. The relationship remained sensitive until complete reconciliation at the wedding between Crown Prince Olav and Princess Märtha in 1929.
In 1914 the climate became more conciliatory, but it was still very sensitive. The first larger delegation from Sweden since 1905 came to an anniversary exhibition for the Norwegian constitution in Frognerpark . The condition on the Swedish side was that nothing political be presented. Minister of State Gunnar Knudsen nevertheless gave a political speech about the difficult Norwegian-Swedish relationship after 1905. Both sides found this embarrassing, and the press did not reproduce the speech.
It was only during the First World War that common positions on the question of neutrality, an expansion of trade and more frequent meetings of kings emerged. All three Scandinavian states remained neutral during the First World War. However, there were differences. Sweden tended more towards the German side, while Denmark's relationship with Germany was not free of tension due to the North Schleswig question. As a fishing nation, Norway was dependent on free access to the sea and could therefore not afford a conflict with the dominant sea power Great Britain.
After the First World War, Finland, which had become independent, was also included. Common neutrality rules were developed. But at the meeting of the heads of government in Stockholm in 1939 there was no common security policy. The cooperation was limited to the intensification of a common economic, cultural and social policy as well as legislation.
During the Second World War, the term came up again in the Swedish public during discussions about a policy towards Germany and the neighboring countries Norway and Denmark occupied by Germany. At first, Sweden was neutral. After the defeat of the German troops in Finland at the end of 1944, the Soviet-Finnish armistice and the Soviet advance in northern Norway, Sweden decided to deploy troops to liberate Norway and Denmark, but this did not happen in 1945.
present
However, from 1948 onwards, Nordic cooperation had to accept setbacks. The plan for a Nordic Defense Union failed due to Sweden's refusal to buy US weapons systems, whereupon Denmark, Norway and Iceland abandoned the course of neutrality previously pursued in the Nordic countries and became founding members of NATO , while Sweden and Finland were due to military neutrality held tight. The plans to establish economic cooperation between the Nordic and Scandinavian countries with Nordek (including Finland) and later with Skandek (excluding Finland) as a counterbalance to the growing European Community failed in the early 1970s.
Currently, Scandinavianism is expressed, among other things, in the Nordic Council , in which the parliaments of the Nordic countries and autonomous regions work together. Among other things, it annually awards its renowned literary prize as the most important award for Scandinavian literature. Since 1971 there has also been close coordination at government level with the Nordic Council of Ministers. The West Nordic countries and regions Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe Islands have been working together in the West Nordic Council since 1985 . The Nordic countries have been presenting themselves with a joint embassy building in Berlin since 1999 . The public broadcasting companies of Northern Europe have been working together in Nordvision since 1959 . As early as 1954, regular border controls between Denmark (excluding the Faroe Islands and Greenland), Sweden, Finland and Norway have been dispensed with as part of the Nordic Passport Union .
As a non-governmental organization in each of the Nordic countries (in South Schleswig ) also, founded in 1919 Foreningen Norden / Föreningen Norden (dt. Association North ) active, who initiated at civil society level, a number of inter-Nordic projects.
literature
- Gate Ivar Hansen: Et skandinavisk nasjonsbyggingsprosjekt. Skandinavisk selskab (1864–1871) (PDF; 993 kB). Oslo 2008.
- Ruth Hemstad: Fra Indian Summer til nordisk vinter. Skandinavisk samarbeid, skandinavisme og unionsoppløsningen. Oslo 2008.
- Magnus A. Mardal: Scandinavisme . In: Store norske leksikon
- HRTE Hildebrand: Scandinavism . In: Theodor Westrin, Ruben Gustafsson Berg, Eugen Fahlstedt (eds.): Nordisk familjebok konversationslexikon och realencyklopedi . 2nd Edition. tape 25 : Sekt – Slöjskifling . Nordisk familjeboks förlag, Stockholm 1917, Sp. 879-882 (Swedish, runeberg.org ).
Individual evidence
- ↑ a b Hansen p. 2.
- ↑ a b Hemstad p. 47.
- ↑ Hildebrand column 879.
- ↑ Hildebrand column 879. Of the 90 participants, 22 were Danes, 10 Norwegians and over 50 Swedes. Hemstad p. 48.
- ↑ a b c Mardal
- ↑ Hemstad p. 65.
- ↑ In fact, the spelling Å for the previous Aa was introduced in Denmark and Norway in the first half of the 20th century; on the other hand, Sweden did not adopt the spelling Æ and Ø for the letters Ä and Ö
- ↑ Such meetings lasted about three weeks with arrival and return home. Based on the Scottish expression "90-minute nationalism" in connection with football games, these meetings were referred to as "three-week nationalism" because the nationalist creed hardly survived the meeting.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 53 f.
- ↑ Hildebrand column 880. His speech ended with: “And I ask all of you who are present here, I ask you with all the seriousness that fills my soul and that shines out in your eyes - I ask you whether you are with me want to enter into a so-called blood brotherhood? ”(yes! yes!)“ I ask you whether you are aware that such a yes is a holy vow, which no honest man plays carelessly with - a holy vow for which you honor your manhood and pledged your peace of mind? ”(yes! yes!) In the end he demanded loyalty to this vow in life and in death. Hemstad p. 59. The reporting in Norway, on the other hand, was more sober and detached. Hemstad p. 55.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 60.
- ↑ Hemstad fn. 215.
- ↑ Hansen cover sheet.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 57.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 73.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 75.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 76.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 77.
- ↑ Brödrafolkenes väl . In: Bernhard Meijer (Ed.): Nordisk familjebok konversationslexikon och realencyklopedi . 2nd Edition. tape 4 : Brant-Cesti . Nordisk familjeboks förlag, Stockholm 1905, Sp. 458 (Swedish, runeberg.org ).
- ↑ Broderfolkenes Vel . In: Christian Blangstrup (Ed.): Salmonsens Konversationsleksikon . 2nd Edition. tape 4 : Bridge-Cikader . JH Schultz Forlag, Copenhagen 1916, p. 41 (Danish, runeberg.org ).
- ↑ Hemstad p. 351.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 78.
- ↑ a b Hildebrand column 880.
- ↑ Hildebrand column 881.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 69.
- ↑ Hansen p. 4.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 88.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 92 f.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 89.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 111 f.
- ↑ Hemstad pp. 118-122.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 109.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 311 and note 1563.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 328.
- ↑ For example Karl Warburg, Anna Sanström, Theodor and Cecilia Bååth-Holmberg. Helmstad p. 313.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 208.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 312.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 355.
- ↑ Hemstad pp. 364-368.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 373.
- ↑ North newspaper , October 1906 p. 66.
- ↑ Hemstad p. 386.
- ↑ Nordic special routes to Europe. Federal Agency for Civic Education , accessed on March 23, 2013 .
- ↑ Nordic Embassies Berlin