Sheikh Bedreddin

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Sheikh Bedreddin ( Ottoman شيخ بدر الدين بن قاضى سماونا İA Şeyḫ Bedreddīn bin Ḳāḍı Simavna ; Turkish Şeyh Bedreddin ;) (born December 3, 1358 , Simavna, Edirne ; † December 18, 1420 in Serez ), was an important Ottoman legal scholar, Sufi and rebel . He is a controversial figure in Anatolian and Ottoman history. He was sentenced to death in 1420 and hanged.

His family

Bedreddin was born around 1359 as the son of the Qādī of Simavna, Ghāzi Isra'il. According to his Menâkibnâme , a script written by his grandson Halil and belonging to the genre of often religiously exaggerated hagiographies , Bedreddin's grandfather, 'Abd al'Aziz, was a nephew of ' Alâ-eddin Kaiqobad III. (died 1307), the last ruling Seljuk sultan in Konya. The chronicler Taşköprülüzâde also speaks of Bedreddin's father belonging to the Seljuk ruling family of Konya. The information about belonging to the Seljuk ruling family should be derived from Taşköprülüzâde's historical work Sakaik-i Nu'maniye , which sees Bedreddin's father as a brother of Alaâddin Seljuki. According to S. Yaltkaya, this information cannot be found in the root registers of the ruling families.

The very early presence of the grandfather and father of Bedreddin in Rumelia and their designation as Ghāzī make their membership of the first Ghazi troops very likely, which in 1354 under the leadership of the Ottoman heir to the throne Suleyman Paschas (d. 1360) translated to Europe and set out to plunder and conquer . During the period of the Ottomans' raids and conquests on the European continent, Bedreddin's father served as warrior, fortress commander and judge of Simavne in Rumelia (west of Adrianople ). Bedreddin himself used the title "son of the judge of Simavne" as an addition to his name.

Like the son later, the father also seems to have chosen the career path of scholar before he and his grandfather took part in the campaigns of conquest in Europe. According to the chronicler Ibn Arabshâh, his studies of law, which he is said to have started in the city of Konya, should have taken him to Turkestan and the city of Samarqand . After returning to the land of Rum, the father found himself in the ranks of the Ottoman troops operating in the hinterland of Byzantium. With his troops, Ghâzi Isra'il conquered the Simavne fortress. The family of the Byzantine fortress commander (Tekfur) was captured. Ghâzi Isra'il took possession of the castle. He distributed all the booty to his people and took the daughter of the fortress commander as his wife. She was given the name Melek (angel). He set up the Christian church in the castle as an apartment. Mahmûd (Bedreddin) was born here in 1358 (Mânakibnâme: pp. 9–13).

Ghâzi Isra´il took over the post of commander, governor and judge (Qādī) in Simavne. It is unclear whether he really became Qādī or, as R. Çamuroğlu believed, this is just a misinterpretation due to the similarities in the spelling of "Ghâzi" and "Qādī". Ghâzi Isra'il continued to be involved in raids and raids. With 300 men he took part in the conquest of Adrianople (today Edirne , Turkey) and then moved there with his family.

Life

First years of life

According to the Ottoman chroniclers, Bedreddin was first taught by his father until he became a pupil of a certain Sahidi. From his later teacher Mevlana Yusuf he mainly learned languages. One of Bedreddin's teachers was Mahmud Efendi, a respected Islamic theologian, the Qādī of Bursa and head of the Islamic school there ( madrasa ). He stayed in Edirne for a short time after a pilgrimage with his son Musa Tschelebi. He taught Bedreddin in the subjects of mathematics, astronomy and literacy (interpretation).

Musa (st. 1414/1415), the son of Mahmud Efendis, became a close friend of Bedreddin. Musa was later to be called to Samarqand by Shāh Ruch , a son of the Mongol ruler Timur. There he made a name for himself as an astronomer as Kaadizâde-i Rumî . Musa was later also the teacher of Prince Ulugh Beg, who was interested in astrology, and worked with Giyâseddin Cemsid (Ġīyāṯ ad-Din Ǧamšīd ibn Masʿūd al-Kāšī). Since Bedreddin wanted to continue his studies, he followed Mahmud Efendi to Bursa, accompanied by Müeyyid, the son of his uncle Abdülmümin. Bedreddin, Müeyyid and Musa mainly studied theology (kelâm) and methodology together at the Kapicilar Madrasa.

According to unsecured sources, Bedreddin left the city of Bursa in 1382. He went to Konya to the college of a certain Feyzullah. According to the information of the chronicler Taşköprülüzâde, this was a student of the famous Fadlullah, the founding father of the Hurufi movement. With Feyzullah he studied in particular the fields of logic and astronomy. However, since Feyzullah passed away very soon, the studies had to be interrupted.

Studied in Cairo

Bedreddin and his cousin Müeyyid bin Abdülmümin studied in Jerusalem with senior legal scholars and lived in the rooms of the al-Aqsa mosque . They met the trader Ali Kasmiri, who provided them with an apartment and sufficient food and brought them together with well-known scholars. With the support of Ali Kasmiri, they came to Cairo via Jerusalem around 1395. Bedreddin and Müeyyid lived in Cairo with financial support from Kasmiri and were able to continue their studies. His acquaintance with the teacher of logic Mübarek Shah, whose pupils also included the well-known ʿAlī ibn Muhammad al-Jurdschānī (Mīr as-Sayyid aš-Šarīf Zain ad-Dīn ʿAlī ibn Muḥammad al-Ḥusainī al- Ǧurǧānī) belonged to. He also got to know Jelaleddin Hizir, who would later make a name for himself as Aydinli Hadschi Pascha and also worked for a time as the chief physician of the Cairo clinic. The poet Ahmedî and Semseddin Fenarî (Shams ad-Dīn Muḥammad al-Fanārī) were among his college friends. Bedreddin, Seyyit Serif Jurdschanî and Jelaleddin Hizir studied together for a while with the scholar Sheikh Ekmeleddin (Akmal ad-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad ibn Maḥmud al-Bābartī).

Bedreddin had made in Cairo as a scholar soon a name and was about 1389-1390 by the Egyptian Mamelukes -Sultan Barquq as an educator for the prince Faraj summoned to the court. He held this position for two or three years. The acquaintance with Sheikh Husain al-Achlātī , the sheikh of a Tekke , brought him to Sufism. Al-Achlātī and Bedreddin were presented with slaves by the Egyptian sultan. There were two Abyssinian sisters named Maria and Gâzîbe. From the connection of Bedreddin with Gâzîbe, Ismail (the father of the author of the Mânakibnâme) was born in 1390 (Mânakibnâme: pp. 30–33).

Due to a life crisis, Bedreddin became a Murid Sheikh al-Achlātīs. The reasons that led Bedreddin into the crisis are no longer comprehensible. In any case, he took off the splendid robe that he usually wore and put on hair clothes. Everything he owned he distributed among the poor. Then he packed his books and took them to the Nile, where he sank them. The separation of books is to be understood more symbolically than a sign of the beginning of life as a Sufi. After the death of Sheikh al-Achlātīs Bedreddin was elected as his successor, Sheikh of the Order. His title sheikh goes back to this office.

Return to Anatolia and involvement in an uprising

Just six months in office, Bedreddin, who carried the title Bedreddin-i Rumî during his stay in the Middle East , went back to his hometown Edirne. The Ottoman army suffered a heavy defeat in the battle of Ankara against the Mongol leader Timur, the Sultan Yildirim Beyazid was taken prisoner, and the Ottoman Empire was again dismembered. On the way back, Bedreddin is said to have met Timur, the Mongol ruler. In the city of Kütahya he probably met Torlak Hû Kemal, an insurgent. In 1407 or 1408 his wife Gâzîbe died in Edirne. In 1411 he became a kadiasker (army judge) under the sultan's son Musa Çelebi , who had conquered power in the European part during the Ottoman interregnum and proclaimed himself Sultan of the Ottomans.

When Musa was defeated and killed by his brother Mehmed Çelebi as a result of the battles for the throne , Bedreddin began a period of exile in 1413. It is unclear whether he was under house arrest, imprisoned or “taken into early retirement” with a pension. In 1416 Bedreddin fled the place of his exile in the direction of Wallachia , reached Silistre and turned up in Deliorman while the uprisings under the leadership of Börklüce Mustafa were raging in Western Anatolia , presumably in order to reinvigorate the uprising and expand it to the Balkans. When Mehmed Çelebi, after Sultan Mehmed I had achieved autocracy, noticed that many of his opponents were gathering around Bedreddin, he soon had him arrested and in 1420 in Serez, naked and publicly executed on the market square. Bedreddin had already passed the age of 60.

execution

According to the Mânakibnâme, Bedreddin was tried according to the "örf" procedure (Arabic ʿurf: legal judgment based on customary law), that is, according to tradition, because no recourse could be found for a death sentence under Islamic law. "It is noteworthy that a hearing took place at all, that a fatwa was obtained, but also that his property remained untouched," comments A. Mumcu in his book Osmanli Devletinde Siyasetten Katl (Executions for political reasons among the Ottomans) on Bedreddin's trial. The death sentence has been passed down with certainty: "His blood is legitimate, his possessions are unclean." His main mystical-philosophical work, Vâridat, was banned for centuries, and possession of this work was often punished with death.

Two reasons seem to coincide in the condemnation of Bedreddin. On the one hand, he was involved in the uprisings against the Ottoman crown. At least he represented a danger to the sultan. On the other hand, he was a high scholar of his time, at the same time a spiritual dignitary who had held one of the highest offices in this regard. However, he was still an influential and popular mystic and religious leader whose unorthodox ideas were known. Therefore, attempts to deduce from the fatwa alone that he was not involved in the uprisings seem far-fetched. In view of the fact that his jurisprudential works were still used for a very long time, it cannot have been these that prompted the orthodox forces to act, but rather his ideas presented in Vâridat, which concern the basic assumptions of the Islamic religion.

Works

A list of Bedreddin's works includes the Mânakibnâme des Halil and the chronicles of Taşköprülüzâde. These are: 1.  Ukudü'l-cevâhir , 2.  Latâif-ül Işârât , 3.  Ǧāmiʿ ul-fuṣūlain (printed in Bulaq 1301h), 4.  Teshil , 5.  Nûrü'l kulûb tefsiri and 6.  Vâridat . Despite the abundance of literature on Bedreddin, the many monographs and the smaller works and appreciations that are difficult to keep track of, there is still no complete review of Bedreddin's works and thus of Bedreddin's religious views. His followers were, at least according to the official fatwas of orthodox scholars and religious leaders (sheikh-ul-islam), infidels and troublemakers who were persecuted. Bedreddin research did not begin until the 1920s, initially with F. Babinger, Ş. Yaltkaya, A. Gölpinarli and F. Köprülü. An unfinished commentary (şerh) by Muhammed Nur on Vâridat was only accessible to a few.

Legal contributions

Bedreddin's most extensive work is in the field of jurisdiction. In Camul ´ul fusû´leyn (Ǧāmiʿ ul-fuṣūlain), a broad-based work in Arabic, which was written within ten months during his time as an army judge in the service of Musa Tschelebi (1413) and probably intended for the hand of the judge was, he justified his view of the independence of the individual judge from tradition and worldly power (including the ruler). In it, he declares a judgment that is not based on the judge's own convictions, but came about on the basis of the conviction of another person, as reprehensible and sinful. It encourages the judge to include the changed framework in the decision-making process, even when using traditional judgments. Bedreddin's attempt to divide power in two by strengthening the autonomy of the law is only continued again with the Mecelle (Mecelle-i Ahkâm-i adliye) , the civil code of the Ottoman Empire from the second half of the 19th century.

Because Bedreddin was not satisfied with compiling existing judgments, but was looking for principles for reaching a judgment, he is one of the most important Ottoman-Turkish lawyers for N. Kurdakul. Numerous copies of his works were made until the middle of the 16th century. The works Camul 'ul fusu'leyn and Teshil, each about a thousand pages each, were copied particularly often. There are still at least ten undated copies of these works. While new copies of the legal works were made at irregular intervals, the comparatively modest book Vâridat was carefully kept hidden by his followers, and its possession was made a punishable offense by the Orthodox clergy.

The lost work Teshil, which he finished in 1415, was, according to Bedreddin, a commentary on his own legal work Latâif-ül Işârât, in which he dealt with legal science. About the genesis of the Teshil he writes: “I, Mahmud, known as the son of the judge of Simavne, son of Israel, a weak creature of God: He should save him from the hands of the oppressors and their helpers, cover his shame and grief and To avert and remove misfortune from him. God made it possible for me to finish my legal work entitled Latâif ül-işârât (…) The reader found it difficult to understand this work. In order to facilitate the understanding of the reasons that gave rise to the writing, to clarify the secret meanings contained therein and difficult to understand and to work through the passages identified in this regard, but also to prevent a negative reception of my book, I have no hesitation in explaining and Interpretation started (…) In doing so, I have communicated to a thousand fine and small legal matters. The remarks, which I have titled Ekval, come from me, if no other information is noted (...) and are not a reproduction of stories or just learned by heart ”.

Vâridat

In his religious-philosophical work Vâridat, Bedreddin focuses on the original religious themes of creation, the universe, the relationship between God and man, angels, dreams, precepts of faith, death and the afterlife. Vâridat is a word of Arabic origin and has the meanings "remembered", "that which appears to be within", "insights". Vâridat could also be reproduced as “revelations” without any problems. Vâridat is a genre that deals exclusively with religious questions in the Sufi sense and is a kind of Sufi catechism. Yaltkaya writes about the type of Vâridat: "Just as politicians write their memoirs, they [note: the Sufis] collect these inspirations under the name Vâridat or Vâkiat."

Formal aspects

The Vâridat Bedreddins does not show a clear structure. A common thread is the exposition of an inner meaning or the deeper meaning of religious terms from the holy scriptures. Vâridat is actually a conglomerate of heterodox ideas and trains of thought, which are kept hidden with various references to generally used religious phrases, references to the words of the prophet, and religious texts. Various literary elements are mixed together: examples, proverbs, quotations, prayers. There are suspicions that this work is a retrospective compilation of his lectures, which were probably compiled by his students.

In the Vâridat, Bedreddin usually juxtaposes elements of orthodox and Sufi-heterodox views. In most cases, his arguments use the Koran . Where he cannot back up his theses with evidence from the holy books and where his view threatens to openly contradict the Sunni-Orthodox view, he evades by referring to the “knowing Sufi”. He was forced to explain his message to the people only in an understandable and at the same time veiled form.

The available Turkish translations of the Vâridat are very different in structure and terminology. In addition, they do not provide any reliable information about their sources. It would therefore often be more appropriate to speak of these translations as annotated reproductions.

Main theses

The ideas that Bedreddin outlines in his work Vâridat differ only in a few positions from the usual works in the context of Islamic mysticism, but these few concern the core questions of the Islamic worldview. They can be formulated as theses based on his statements in the Vâridat:

1. The prophet is necessarily a didactic.
2. The hereafter and the resurrection are to be understood as symbols. They are not truths in the naturalistic sense.
3. The two worlds, this world and the hereafter, are at the same time. These are parallel worlds.
4. The terms hell, paradise, sin and benevolence only have a symbolic meaning.
5. There is no re-resurrection of previously dead bodies.
6. The meaning of an action is always preferable to the form.
7. At the end of the path of knowledge stands the knowing person. This is the ideal person freed from the forms and formalities of the world (Insan-i kamil).

reception

Ş. Yaltkaya judges the Vâridat Bedreddins to be written very hastily. He writes: “There is not a single originality in this book, which has caused a lot of unrest. Bedreddin did not formulate a single new thought in his book. ” Hans-Joachim Kißling agrees with this opinion. Ş. Yaltkaya, on the other hand, is of the following opinion: "Because Bedreddin first brought these thoughts into the world of Tasavvuf , he was tried". Vâridat's work polarized its readers strongly. Nureddin Zâde Muslihüddin Mustafa (died 1573), a follower of the Balî from Sofia, wrote: “The treatise from Bedreddin and known as“ Vâridat ”is a sample for humans. One can only reject it or acknowledge it. Part of the people have fallen back on the deviation and have turned those who followed them from the right path. Some remained silent because they did not know the pillars of Islam, and even some of these [those who remained silent] believed that the wise men like Seyh-i Ekber [= Ibn Arabî] were also of his [Bedreddin's] faith. God forbid, can animals join angels? ”Yavsî Muhammed Muhiyiddîn Imâdi (died 1516), the father of the famous Sheikh-ul-islam Kanunî Sultan Suleyman, Ebussuûd Efendi , praises the work of Vâridat in the highest terms. The discussion about the work was continued in a very polemic way over many centuries.

to teach

The prophets' dilemma

For Bedreddin the prophets are undoubtedly emissaries of God. However, in proclaiming divine truth, you must conform to the diversity in human understanding in order to be understood at all. A consequence of Bedreddin’s thesis is that the holy scriptures are brought to the level of the human understanding and thus share man’s inadequacies towards God. If the written or traditional word of the prophets reflects the result of a pedagogical reduction, they are no longer to be followed literally, but always to be questioned about their meaning.

Bedreddin advocates the thesis that every human being can only understand to the extent of his or her cognitive ability. Therefore, the common man is therefore dependent on images and parables. Bedreddin compares the prophets to parents in a parable. In order to lead their children to goodness, they scare them with unreal things or encourage them with impossible expectations. He thereby points to a paradox . The prophet finds himself in the dilemma of the enlightenment, whose truth is not understood by the target group. He must therefore present his truth pedagogically and thereby necessarily create images that, having become an end in themselves, mislead people.

For Bedreddin, the words of the prophets and purified people are true, many people only misinterpreted them. The holy books are by no means the best way for him to come to an understanding of divine truth. Do you think that with this confused soul you know God and the prophets and have understood their meaning by reading the books? He asks and continues: As long as you are busy with the lessons, you are distancing yourself from understanding the truth.

Religious duties

In the case of religious duties, Bedreddin asks about the inner meaning. This is decisive, not the form. Prayer only makes sense when souls come closer to truth through it. The external form of a prayer is only of secondary importance. All prayers and intercession [also petitions: d. Ed.] Are only means to improve morality and the inner [also the self: d. Ed.] To clean. There is no set time, limit, or condition on prayer. In whatever form it is carried out, it corresponds to the will of God. The aim and purpose of prayer is to release the souls from their transitory existence and to turn to the highest being, which has no beginning. So it is logical for him to protect the prayer dance (semâh) preferred by heterodox groups and severely persecuted by orthodoxy in Vâridat . When people whose natures are pure hear a beautiful sound, their souls turn to God. Your inner being emptied of this worldly worries and is filled with the love of God. Can an activity, asks Bedreddin, which leads a person to God, be forbidden? Can such an approach correspond to a Muslim?

The God-Human Relationship

Bedreddin's idea of ​​God is not clear. It is sometimes pantheistic , sometimes monistic , sometimes monotheistic . God is a primordial substance that expresses itself in the visible forms of this world. This would mean that the story of creation itself could no longer be kept as a one-off act. Although he often speaks of the act of creation and the intentions of a creative God who has a pronounced anthropomorphic character, his conception of the two worlds is quite suitable to see God as an indefinable, shapeless and driven something from which creation arises, without the need for any special intention. For this reason, for Bedreddin the world can only be without a beginning and without an end. At this point, too, he comes into conflict with the idea of ​​the Last Judgment.

According to Bedreddin, the will of God is essential and cannot be explained in any language. Essential here means that a being does not need any other reason for its existence than itself. At the same time, however, it also means a dependency on not being able to be otherwise. God cannot refuse to take a form. But it cannot be reduced to its particular form. In the essence of God there is the tendency to step out of oneself and to become visible, which are realized in visible things. Love also comes from this tendency and is inherent in itself. So the inclination is also inherent, like the will of God. God as the primordial ground, endowed with the tendency to concentrate on forms and step out of himself, consequently has no beginning. It also follows from this that the world cannot have an end - a position that clearly contradicts the announcements of the Koran.

The way of the person, the destiny and the determination

The human being is at the center of Bedreddin's view. The religious tradition of man being made in the image of God is not meant figuratively, but spiritual. God be far from all sensually perceivable images. Sensually perceivable images belong in the reality of the human sphere ( âlem ). The image on these levels consists of the real. And what is essential to man is his creation in the image of God.

According to him, the special position of humans is based on the fact that they are the only living beings who have knowledge of the divine names. Man oscillates between being God and being on earth, although he is the embodiment of the inner face of the divine. The goal of human development is the level of insan-i kâmil, the knowing or wise man. He was released from the fulfillment of religiously predetermined rituals and regulations, since the veiled secret itself had become visible to him. But how is the secret revealed? For Bedreddin, approaching the veiled mystery means commuting between being and non-being, detaching oneself from the visible, which is seeming and fleeting. This shows Bedreddin's closeness to the ideas of the Bâtinî.

With regard to the question of the fatefulness of the world, Bedreddin differentiates between “knowing” and “ignorant” people. The “knowing man” knows about God as the origin of himself and thus also of his actions. In contrast, the “ignorant” person perceives God and himself as separate and succumbs either to the erroneous assumption of perfect freedom or of predestination.

Rejection of the conception of the afterlife in the Koran

For Bedreddin, this world and the hereafter are two aspects of a world that together represent God. In particular when it comes to questions about the hereafter, he decidedly distances himself from orthodoxy. The Islamic advance notice of the Last Judgment and the resurrection from the dead becomes irrelevant for him through the ever present unity of beings. Bedreddin's notions that neither God nor the world have a beginning and an end and that the act of creation can be traced back to the dissolution and recompression of the divine substance make a return to orthodox Islamic positions impossible. The advance notice of Judgment Day (Yaum al-qiyama) is one of the most important principles of the Islamic creed. It is only the acceptance of this "fact" that defines the Orthodox Muslim. Bedreddin partially breaks away from the idea of ​​a threatening and punishing God. He fears that one would only believe for the expected reward in the hereafter and not for the sake of faith itself.

Bedreddin distinguishes two worlds, one of the visible and one of the invisible spirit (alemi-gayb, melekût), that of angels and souls. He also calls the invisible world the land of dreams. This subheading includes the cleansed wives [Hûri: d. Ed.], Palaces, fruits and things like them. Also the Djin [spirit being: d. Ed.] Belongs in the world of dreams, although those who see him believe they have seen him in this world. The secret world is also God in its essence. Its secret is only apparent. All stages of existence are in the world of things, when these things disappear nothing remains but the souls [peace: d. Ed.], And the stripped, abstract beings left.

At all times, Muslims would have expected the imminent arrival of the Last Judgment. Bedreddin has its own interpretation of Judgment Day. From what we know, he writes, kiyamet [Judgment Day] means the obliteration of a person's appearance and his [dominion over] attributes. For him, Judgment Day is nothing other than the death of the individual. Since, in his opinion, the soul and the substance cannot be divided, a new joining of the substance begins after the dissolution.

Bedreddin remains within the framework of mystical concepts of unity and continues them consistently. Bedreddin therefore shifts the reward for believing life from the hereafter to this worldly, self-responsible, divine-ethical behavior. But how the devil responsible for evil is to be thought of in this unity of God, Bedreddin knowingly conceals. Here the unity of being dissolves and in the usual orthodox manner delimits the devil, Iblis, from the divine.

Surrender means emancipation

Bedreddin imposes restrictions on God's omnipotence. According to Bedreddin, the latter cannot want anything that contradicts the quality of things. His will is realized according to the nature of things. So the Almighty is not all-powerful. There is no essential difference between God and man, so there is also none in freedom. Man should accept that he himself is God and ascribe the will and the activity to himself. What one ascribes to God is also due to man. Bedreddin perforates the dogma of the fatalistic bondage of the individual to a predetermined divine fate ( kismet ) and at the same time establishes a new dependency. There could be no escape from this bondage. Such thoughts were and are blasphemies for both Sunni and Shiite orthodoxy, especially when they come from the country's highest judge in the case of Bedreddin. Orthodox Islam speaks of the right of the individual over the ego (li nafsika 'alaika haqqun = you yourself have rights towards yourself), but at the same time begins to regulate this by stipulating very detailed regulations about a moral and spiritual life.

Later assessment and literary reception

For Yavsî Muhammed Muhiyiddîn Imâdi (died 1516) Bedreddin is a sultan in the ranks of those who know God and faith. His son, the famous Sheikh-ül-Islam Kanunî Sultan Süleymans, Ebussuûd Efendi , who rose as the highest-ranking clergyman to become the most famous figure of the Islamic Inquisition, was quite different . Bedreddin and his legal judgments concerning Vâridat go back to him, in which the followers of Bedreddin were assessed as manifestly unbelievers who must be killed.

The Bedreddin reception has changed over time. In 1900 the well-known German-Turkish journalist Friedrich Schrader presented under the pseudonym “I. Schiraki ”(= Ishtiraki ) in the culture supplement of the SPD party sheet forward “ The New World ”Sheikh Bedreddin and his companions and disciples Böreklice Mustafa as the first“ Mohammedan Communists ”. The Turkish poet Nazim Hikmet wrote his famous “Epic of the Sheikh Bedrettin” in the prison in Bursa 1932-1934 after reading a “treatise on Bedreddin” and realizing how close he had been to the ideas of Marxist socialism (1936) . It is not known whether the German mighty (Hikmet had met the eldest son of Friedrich Schrader as a student at the Naval School in Halki 1917-18, who served there as naval staff interpreter for the commanding officer of the school, Lieutenant Kurt Böcking.) Bedreddin through Schrader's essay.

The Islamic camp in Turkey is currently trying vehemently to remove the scholar Bedreddin from the heterodox camp and to integrate it into the Islamic camp.

literature

• Michel Balivet: Islam mystique et révolution armée dans les Balkans ottomans. Vie du Cheikh Bedreddîn le "Hallâj des Turcs" (1358 / 59-1416). Ed. Isis, Istanbul 1995.
• Nâzım Hikmet: The epic of Sheikh Bedreddin, son of the Kadis of Simavne. Ararat-Verlag, Berlin 1982, ISBN 3-921889-09-X .
• Mesut Keskin: The idea of ​​tolerance in Anatolian heterodoxy using the example of Sheikh Bedreddin Mahmud Isra'il with references to intercultural education. Dissertation at the Free University of Berlin. Microfiche edition, 2001.
• Hans-Joachim Kißling : The Menaqybname Sheikh Bedr ed-Din's, the son of the judge of Samavna. In: Journal of the German Oriental Society , Volume 100, 1950, pp. 112–176.
• Hans-Joachim Kißling: Bedreddîn, Simavna Kadısıoğlu . In: Biographical Lexicon on the History of Southeast Europe . Volume 1. Munich 1974, pp. 168-170
• Hans Joachim Kißling: Badr al-Dīn b. Ḳāḍī Samāwnā . In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition . Volume I, p. 869.
• Müfid Yüksel: Simavna Kadısıoğlu. Şeyh Bedreddin. Haziran 2002, ISBN 975-6920-13-0 . (Turkish)

Web links

• Literature by and about Sheikh Bedreddin in the catalog of the German National Library

Individual evidence

1. ^ Hans Joachim Kissling: Badr al-Dīn b. Ḳāḍı Samawna . In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition
2. ↑ I. Shiraki: Böreklidsche Pasha, the first Muhammadan communist . In: Die Neue Welt , supplement to Vorwärts , year 1900, pp. 139–147.
3. ^ Dietrich Gronau, Nazim Hikmet: rororo picture monograph . 1991, ISBN 3-499-50426-X , pp. 86 f.