Languages in Spain
There are different languages in Spain , as the population of Spain does not form a cultural and therefore no linguistic unit. The Castilian language , commonly referred to as "Spanish language" or simply "Spanish", is the official language throughout the national territory.
Official languages
Article 3 of the Spanish Constitution reads:
- (1) Castilian is the official Spanish language of the state. All Spaniards have a duty to master them and the right to use them.
- (2) The other Spanish languages are also official languages in the respective Autonomous Communities , insofar as their Statute of Autonomy so determine.
- (3) Spain’s richness in linguistic diversity is a cultural asset that is the subject of special respect and protection.
The Spanish Constitutional Court decided on this in a landmark judgment: According to Paragraph 1, every citizen can use and has Castilian in dealings with any public institution (regardless of whether it is owned by the state, an autonomous community, a province or a municipality) Entitlement to have an answer in that language. Conversely, according to paragraph 2, it follows from the statute of an additional regional official language that this then applies not only to the authorities of the autonomous community itself, but also to the state authorities in this region. In other words: just as regional authorities are prohibited from not accepting Castilian, the state institutions in the regions (such as the courts, the Policía Nacional or the Guardia Civil) are prohibited from not accepting the respective regional official language.
The following statutes of autonomy provide for such other official languages ( lenguas co-oficiales ) in addition to Castilian:
- Catalonia : Catalan and Aranese (Art. 6 of the Statute of Autonomy). According to the new Statute of Autonomy of 2006, Aranese is the official language in the entire territory of the Autonomous Community, but is in fact only of importance in the Val d'Aran .
- Balearic Islands : Catalan (Art. 4 of the Statute of Autonomy)
- Valencia : " Valencian ", a variety of Catalan (Art. 6 of the Statute of Autonomy)
- Basque Country : Basque (Art. 6 of the Statute of Autonomy)
- Navarre : Basque (only in Basque-speaking areas, Art. 9 of the Statute of Autonomy)
- Galicia : Galician (Art. 5 of the Statute of Autonomy)
Other languages
Art. 4 of the Statute of Autonomy of Asturias stipulates that the varieties of Asturleonese ( el bable ) spoken there are to be protected and promoted by the autonomous community, but without making them an official language. Article 7 of the Statute of Autonomy for Aragon stipulates something similar for the unspecified "languages and linguistic peculiarities of Aragon" (meaning Catalan and Aragonese spoken in an eastern strip of the region ). For the other languages, please refer to the map above.
Language policy
definition
From a linguistic point of view, language policy (see also language policy ) describes all deliberate political activities and behaviors that affect language and thus, for example, emphasize or disguise the differences between languages and thus influence or manipulate the use of language. Government, language academies, intellectuals, families, schools and also the mass media can be the bearers and actors of language policy.
Language politics can take place on the historical level, in that a language is emphasized and promoted from other varieties because of its historical otherness . A language can also be chosen as a common language from other possible varieties, or it can be used as an exemplary norm for the standardized and standardized language (in contrast to the other varieties).
On the one hand, language politics can unite if it is open to others, recognizes them as members of the same community and includes them. Language can thus create a feeling of belonging to a community and language can become a symbol of a collective identity. On the other hand, speakers of other languages can be excluded from a community if it is limited to only one language.
History of language politics in Spain
From Latin to Spanish
A change in the linguistic landscape on the Iberian Peninsula came about through its Roman conquest (218–19 BC), through which the Latin language and culture were spread there (see Latinization and Romanization ). However, no violent language policy was pursued. Rather, the Latin language was learned for reasons of prestige. Probably only a small part of the population was able to speak the written language, the so-called classical Latin , since knowledge of it required a socially privileged position. The spoken language, which is different from the written language, is called Vulgar Latin . The Romance languages arose from this vulgar Latin, not from classical Latin. One of them was Castilian (Spanish castellano , see Castilian ), which is still one of the official languages of Spain today.
The terms "Castilian" and " Spanish " (Spanish español ) have been used largely synonymously for the language spoken in Spain since the 16th century. The term "Castilian" is used to distinguish this variety from Latin and other varieties. Today the term “Castilian” is also used instead of “Spanish” to show that Spanish is not only spoken in Spain, nor is it the only language spoken in Spain.
Ferdinand III, the saint (1217–1252), who made Castilian the language of the chancellery , i.e. prescribed that legal texts should be written in Castilian, had a major influence on the spread of Castilian in Spain . King Alfonso the Wise (1221–1284) also promoted Castilian through a lively academic and literary activity at his court in the then capital Toledo , which made Castilian a prestigious language. This included, for example, the continuation of a translation school begun in the 12th century, in which Jews, Christians and Muslims worked together. Translations were originally carried out from Arabic via Castilian into Latin. The works were then increasingly only published in Castilian, as Castilian had the advantage of being religiously neutral, in contrast to Latin, Hebrew or Arabic.
Alfonso the Wise also made Castilian the language of history and administration. The documents exhibited were written in a uniform Castilian, which was determined by spelling rules, in which the king was probably based on the language of the Toledo elite. The documents thus became a model for correct spelling and thus contributed to a certain standardization of the written language.
The first complete grammar in a Romance language was published in 1492 by Antonio de Nebrija under the title Gramática de la lengua castellana . In his foreword, Nebrija emphasizes a connection between language and power, since the language of the mighty is always spoken. In his grammar he lays down norms in order to create the possibility of spreading Spanish in the colonies. Over time, Castilian prevailed over Classical Latin and pushed it out of its traditional areas of use in science, school and administration until the 15th century. Castilian replaced Latin as the national written language. This can be seen from the fact that shortly after the introduction of book printing at the end of the 15th century, much more was printed in Castilian than in Latin. In the 16th century there was hardly any literature that was not in Castilian, as it had the advantage that it was also possible to reach those who did not speak Latin. Castilian was used at court and for communication with other regions and abroad.
Reconquista
The current spread of languages in Spain goes back less to the Latinization than to the Reconquista, the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula, which was largely under Moorish rule from 711 to 1492 (see Reconquista ). This reconquest by the Christians took place in different phases: From the 8th to the 10th century, Asturias , Cantabria , the homeland of Castilian, and the Pyrenees in northern Spain successfully resisted the Moorish occupation. The recapture of Moorish areas took place from the north to the south. In the 11th and 12th centuries, the Moorish domain was divided into several smaller kingdoms. Thus the Christian kingdoms, especially Castile and León , were able to penetrate further south and in 1085 recapture the former Visigoth capital Toledo. In the further course up to the end of the Reconquista, which was concluded with the fall of Granada in 1492, Castile was able to recapture Extremadura , Murcia and Andalusia . With this advance from the north to the south of the Iberian Peninsula, the area with speakers of Castilian almost doubled.
The spread of Castilian was also facilitated by the settlement of Christians in the southern areas (especially in today's autonomous communities of Extremadura and Andalusia). A "settlement colonization" took place to secure these recaptured areas. The mixing of different language groups made it necessary to use a common language for mutual understanding. In this case, Castilian was adopted as the language of the conquerors by the originally foreign language population.
The areas of Catalan , which extended on the east coast of the peninsula as far as Alicante, and Galician , which spread further south from the northwest of the island, were also enlarged by the reconquest. Leonese and Aragonese , on the other hand, could not spread south. Due to the political prestige due to the reconquest, Castilian was increasingly spoken in the Leonese and Aragonese-speaking regions. Also Mozarabic varieties of Romansh declined by the Reconquista and the persecution of Mozarabic population.
Hispanization of Latin America
Language policy was not limited to the Iberian Peninsula, but was also responsible for the spread of the Spanish language during the colonization of Latin America from the 16th century onwards (see Hispanization ). Initially, the language policy of the Church and Crown was such that Christian proselytizing should take place in the languages of the local people (decided in the Council of Trento (1545–1563)). As early as 1596, the Council of India , the highest colonial authority of the colonial empire (Spanish Consejo de Indias ), decided, however, to Hispanize the indigenous people . This was justified by the fact that religious content could be conveyed better in Spanish than in indigenous languages. Instead of learning an indigenous language, priests should now teach the indigenous people the Spanish language. This should serve to facilitate Christianization and enable indigenous people to better represent their rights in front of the authorities. However, the coercive Hispanization measures called for by the Council of India were not enforced.
On the initiative of the Archbishop of Mexico, the principle of the linguistic assimilation of the natives was included in the reform law of 1770 . The aim was no longer just to spread Spanish, but to eradicate indigenous languages. Clergymen often failed to do their duty to teach Spanish. In addition, there were large regional differences in the degree of Hispanization, as the rural population was generally barely recorded. Spanish became more widespread through the need to communicate in everyday relationships with the lingua franca and especially through schools, military service and the mass media in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Centralistic language policy in the 18th and 19th centuries
At the beginning of the 18th century, a phase of absolute monarchy began under the ruling dynasty of the Bourbons , which brought about political centralism . While previously the other regional languages were also tolerated, language laws have now been passed in favor of Castilian. In Catalonia, for example, Castilian should be established as the official and school language after its submission. In order to realize this “planned castilization policy”, the language laws (“ Decretos de Nueva Planta ” of 1716 and “Real Cédula” of 1768) stipulated that school lessons could only take place in Castilian. Castilian was also made the language of administration and justice in 1780. Other laws also made Castilian the language of bookkeeping and theater performances.
In 1713 the Real Academia Española (Spanish Language Academy) was founded to keep Spanish clean and to stabilize it. With her dictionary and a grammar she contributed to the fixing of the linguistic norm. The dictionary was based on Castilian literature from the Golden Age in the 16th and 17th centuries (see Siglo de Oro ). By a royal decree of 1780, the grammar of the academy was declared as teaching Spanish. Thus, and also by publishing school books, the academy had a direct influence on the learning of Spanish (Castilian). In 1815 the previous regulations were supplemented by the definition of orthography , as it still applies today.
Franco dictatorship and the current situation
Linguistic centralism continued in the 20th century. Officials were, for example, ordered to speak only Castilian on official files. In 1931, the Constitution of the Second Republic of Spain made Castilian the official language, which means that it became compulsory for everyone to learn Castilian. Castilian also became the language of instruction in schools and official documents could only be issued in Castilian. Following the example of France, Castilian was to become the national and uniform language of Spain.
The Franco dictatorship (1936 / 39–1975) had a considerable influence on the use of languages in Spain. The dictator, himself from Galicia, tried to make Castilian the standard language in Spain. Castilian was even elevated to a patriotic symbol. All Spaniards were asked directly to speak only Castilian. All other languages and dialects have been banned from education, mass media and street signs, among other places. The repressive language policy also led to the renaming of institutions or places with regional names.
Since the end of the dictatorship, Spain can be described as “a dominantly monolingual country with regional bilingualism”. The current constitution of 1978 establishes Castilian as the official and state language of Spain, but not as the national language, as was the case during the Franco dictatorship. Castilian thus becomes one of the languages of Spain. The regional languages Catalan, Basque and Galician are equal to Castilian as official languages in the respective autonomous communities. This means that they can be used in public affairs, schools and universities. The recognition and protection of linguistic diversity are also guaranteed in Article 3 of the Constitution.
In the autonomous communities with several official languages, there are mostly bilingual speakers who speak both Castilian and their regional language. Due to internal migration in the early 1970s to the industrial regions (e.g. Barcelona and Bilbao), to Valencia and to the Balearic Islands, many Spaniards also live in bilingual areas who only speak Castilian.
After long attempts to make Castilian the only language in Spain, the regional languages are now also promoted in the autonomous communities through language policy. There are laws for their standardization (Spanish Ley de Normalización Lingüística , 1983 first in Catalonia), as well as a main directorate of linguistic politics (Spanish Dirección General de Política Lingüística ) in Catalonia, Galicia, the Basque Country, Valencia and Asturias. These work out laws of linguistic standardization of the respective variety in order to revive it or to hold lessons in this language.
Nevertheless, the use of Castilian is also promoted today by various actors. On the one hand, there are the national and international mass media. For example, one of the most widely read newspapers in Spain, El País , advocates the use of correct and good quality Castilian. It does this through a published guide to proper style that must be followed by all editors. On the other hand, the Spanish King Juan Carlos I also campaigned for peaceful coexistence (Spanish convivencia ) of all languages in various speeches and emphasized that Castilian is the common language of all Spaniards. In addition, the king acts as patron of the language academy ( Real Academia Española ), which continues to devote itself to the maintenance of Castilian and its norms in dictionaries and grammars.
Criticism of today's language policy in Spain
The question of how to deal with the different languages in Spain is still very controversial today. It is also unclear to experts how many languages there are in Spain. The role of languages in the Spanish state and in the regions is also controversial. While Castilian is not recognized by all Spaniards in its function as the official and state language and some are in favor of strengthening the regional languages, others worry about the state of Castilian and fear its decline.
Criticism of the promotion of regional languages is that it is directed against the “common” language of Castilian, that it is not protected and that its expansion is not promoted. For example, all children in Catalonia are taught in Catalan, even those who are not native speakers of Catalan. This is how Castilian is made a foreign language for Catalans. In addition, it is criticized that there is no governmental or administrative institution that deals with the protection of the common language and protects against a language policy that is directed against the common language. The other, regionalist point of view (particularly represented in Catalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country) criticizes the fact that Castilian is still the sole official and state language of Spain and dominates over the other minority languages (see e.g. Catalonia ). The respective Autonomous Communities endeavor to revive and promote the regional languages, to hold school lessons in the regional language and to use them e.g. B. to make it more present in the media.
Speech dissemination
Until the early 1980s
| | |
Until the early 1980s, Castilian or Spanish clearly dominated the public sector. The use of the other languages, which were also not taught, was almost exclusively restricted to the private and family sphere. This dominance of Spanish is due to various developments, some of which go far back in time:
- During the Reconquista (722–1492), the Kingdom of Castile recorded the greatest territorial gains (all of the center of the Iberian Peninsula and Andalusia ). With the expansion of the dominion of the Crown of Castile, the language, which in its origins goes back to the relatively small area of the original county of Castile, spread further and further.
- With the marriage of the Catholic Kings (1469), an all-Spanish monarchy was formed for the first time. However, the different parts of the empire retained their own institutions, their legal systems and their languages. Due to the great military and political importance of Castile, the language spoken there is also gaining social prestige. With the discovery of America (trade with the New World was carried out exclusively through the Castilian ports of Seville and Cádiz ), there was an increased economic importance. As a result, Castilian is becoming the lingua franca of the peninsula.
- With the War of the Spanish Succession , the Bourbons came to the Spanish throne at the beginning of the 18th century . They largely abolish the institutions and legal systems of the parts of the empire that were still in existence until then and transform Spain into a central state governed under Castilian law, which is also accompanied by the preference for the Castilian language in teaching.
- Catalonia and the Basque Country are the earliest and most intensely industrialized regions in Spain. This led to a strong immigration of workers from the rural Castilian-speaking areas well into the 20th century. Since Spanish was already well established in their new homeland, the immigrants were not forced to learn Catalan or Basque as well.
- The conclusion is the suppression of regionalism and the non-Castilian languages by the Franco regime.
Todays situation
Even today, Castilian is understood and spoken throughout Spain. However, the policy of normalización lingüística has meanwhile practically established a state of bilingualism in the autonomous communities specified in the first section .
There are no official statistics on language usage for all of Spain.
In a 2012 Eurobarometer survey in Spain, when asked about their mother tongue, respondents aged 15 and over said 82% Spanish, 8% Catalan, 5% Galician and 1% Basque.
In addition, the regional governments of the multilingual Autonomous Communities carry out sample surveys on language questions, the frequency of which and the catalogs of questions are not uniform (and therefore only comparable to a limited extent). As a rule, questions are asked about the mother tongue, the language with which one identifies, language skills, language habits (how often and in which social context which language is used) and attitudes towards language policy.
Some key figures on mother tongue and language proficiency are given below:
Catalonia
It is a 2013 survey conducted by the Statistics Institute of Catalonia among people aged 15 and over. When asked about the mother tongue the answer was:
| Catalan | Castilian | both | Aranese | other / k. A. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 31.0% | 55.1% | 2.4% | 0.0% | 11.5% |
The answer to the question about language skills was:
| Catalan | Castilian | |
|---|---|---|
| Understand | 94.3% | 99.8% |
| Speak | 80.4% | 99.7% |
| Read | 82.4% | 97.4% |
| Write | 60.4% | 95.9% |
Balearic Islands
A 2010 survey by the regional government was aimed at people aged 16 and over. When asked about mastering Catalan, the answer was:
| Catalan | |
|---|---|
| Understand | 85.0% |
| Speak | 63.4% |
| Read | 70.8% |
| Write | 47.9% |
In this survey, the mother tongue was not asked, but which language the respondent described as "his". The result was:
| Catalan | Castilian | both | other |
|---|---|---|---|
| 36.1% | 45.9% | 6.2% | 11.9% |
Valencia
In the survey from 2010, no questions were asked about the mother tongue. Here, too, people aged 15 and over were surveyed. When asked about the knowledge of Valencian, the answer was "sufficiently good" or "perfect":
| Valencian | |
|---|---|
| Understand | 68.8% |
| Speak | 48.5% |
| Read | 45.3% |
| Write | 26.4% |
Basque Country
For the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country, the following figures on mother tongue are published from 2006 (respondents aged 16 and over):
| Basque | only others | other and Basque |
|---|---|---|
| 19% | 76% | 5% |
The study provides the following information on language skills:
| bilingual, Basque mastered better | 10% |
| bilingual, balanced | 9% |
| bilingual, better command of Castilian | 12% |
| bilingual passive | 18% |
| no Basque ( erdaldun ) | 52% |
For the situation in Navarre, reference is made to the study by the Basque regional government mentioned in the previous section, in which the data were also collected for Navarre.
According to the language law, Navarra is divided into a Basque-speaking region (with around 9% of the total population), a mixed-language region (54%) and a Spanish-speaking region (37%). The following figures from 2006 relate to the total population. The following was given as mother tongue:
| Basque | only others | other and Basque |
|---|---|---|
| 6% | 91% | 3% |
The following numbers can be found for language proficiency in Navarre:
| bilingual, Basque mastered better | 3% |
| bilingual, balanced | 3% |
| bilingual, better command of Castilian | 5% |
| bilingual passive | 8th % |
| no Basque ( erdaldun ) | 81% |
Galicia
The 2008 Galician Statistical Institute's survey collected data for people aged 5 and over. The result of the question about the mother tongue was:
| Galician | Castilian | both |
|---|---|---|
| 47.4% | 27.1% | 23.1% |
The following information was provided for self-assessment of knowledge of Galician:
| Well | enough | low | not at all | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Understand | 66.0% | 28.8% | 4.6% | 0.7% |
| Speak | 54.1% | 35.0% | 7.7% | 3.1% |
| Read | 46.8% | 36.2% | 14.0% | 3.0% |
| Write | 25.3% | 32.6% | 23.3% | 18.9% |
Written language skills
What is striking in all of the studies is that older respondents often lack language skills in written expression for the non-Castilian languages. This is still an aftermath of the Franco era: the non-Castilian languages were not taught. Print media (newspapers, magazines, books) written in these languages were virtually unavailable. Therefore, even native speakers did not come into contact with their written language for nearly half a century.
literature
- Richard Baum: Cultivar con el Arte la Lengua Castellana. Speech formation under the sign of authority. In: Gerda Haßler (Ed.): Continuity and Innovation. Studies on the history of Romance language research from the 17th to the 19th century. Festschrift for Werner Bahner on his 70th birthday. Nodus publications, Münster 1997, ISBN 3-89323-269-9 , pp. 177-197.
- Walther L. Bernecker and Horst Pietschmann: History of Spain. From early modern times to the present. W. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-17-018766-X .
- Helmut Berschin , Julio Fernández-Sevilla and Joseph Felixberger (ed.): The Spanish language. Distribution. History. Structure. Max Hueber Verlag, Munich 2005, ISBN 3-487-12814-4 .
- Klaus Bochmann, Jenny Brumme and Louis Guerspin (eds.): Language policy in Romania. On the history of linguistic thought and action from the French Revolution to the present. A joint work of the Leipzig research group "Sociolinguistics". de Gruyter, Berlin 1993, ISBN 3-11-013614-7 .
- Leonard A. Curchin: Roman Spain: Conquest and Assimilation. Routledge, London et al. 1991, ISBN 0-415-06451-1 .
- Rafael Lapesa: Historia de la lengua española. Editorial Gredos, SA, Madrid, ISBN 978-84-249-0025-0 .
- Franz Lebsanft: Spanish language culture. Studies on the evaluation and maintenance of public language usage in Spain today. Max Niemeyer Verlag, Tübingen 1997, ISBN 3-484-52282-8 .
- Franz Lebsanft: Nation and language: Spanish. In: Andreas Gardt (ed.): Nation and Language. The discussion of their relationship in the past and present. De Gruyter, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-11-014841-2 .
- Juan Ramón Lodares: Lengua y patria: sobre el Nacionalismo lingüístico en España. Santillana Ediciones Generales, SI, Madrid 2002, ISBN 84-306-0453-7 .
- Ralph Penny: A history of the Spanish language. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1991, ISBN 0-521-39481-3 .
- Gregorio Salvador: Política lingüística y sentido común. Ediciones Istmo, Madrid 1992, ISBN 84-7090-250-4 .
Web links
Individual evidence
- ^ Judgment of the Constitutional Court v. June 26, 1986, STC 82/1986: PDF ( Spanish )
- ^ Gregorio Salvador: Política lingüística y sentido común. 1992, p. 69ff.
- ↑ Klaus Bochmann, Jenny Brumme and Louis Guerspin (eds.): Sprachpolitik in der Romania. On the history of linguistic thought and action from the French Revolution to the present. A joint work of the Leipzig research group "Sociolinguistics". 1993, pp. 16-23.
- ^ Gregorio Salvador: Política lingüística y sentido común. 1992, pp. 73-77.
- ^ Gregorio Salvador: Política lingüística y sentido común. 1992, pp. 71f.
- ^ Helmut Berschin, Julio Fernández-Sevilla and Joseph Felixberger (eds.): The Spanish language. Distribution. History. Structure. 1987, p. 75ff.
- ^ Ralph Penny: A history of the Spanish language. 1991, p. 25.
- ^ Helmut Berschin, Julio Fernández-Sevilla and Joseph Felixberger (eds.): The Spanish language. Distribution. History. Structure. 1987, p. 91.
- ↑ Rafael Lapesa: Historia de la lengua española. 2008, p. 208.
- ^ Ralph Penny: A history of the Spanish language. 1991, p. 16.
- ^ Helmut Berschin, Julio Fernández-Sevilla and Joseph Felixberger (eds.): The Spanish language. Distribution. History. Structure. 1987, p. 90.
- ↑ Rafael Lapesa: Historia de la lengua española. 2008, p. 212.
- ^ Ralph Penny: A history of the Spanish language. 1991, p. 15f.
- ↑ Rafael Lapesa: Historia de la lengua española. 2008, p. 250ff.
- ^ Helmut Berschin, Julio Fernández-Sevilla and Joseph Felixberger (eds.): The Spanish language. Distribution. History. Structure. 1987, p. 107.
- ↑ Rafael Lapesa: Historia de la lengua española. 2008, p. 257.
- ^ Helmut Berschin, Julio Fernández-Sevilla and Joseph Felixberger (eds.): The Spanish language. Distribution. History. Structure. 1987, p. 107.
- ↑ Rafael Lapesa: Historia de la lengua española. 2008, p. 257.
- ^ Helmut Berschin, Julio Fernández-Sevilla and Joseph Felixberger (eds.): The Spanish language. Distribution. History. Structure. 1987, pp. 55f.
- ^ Walter Bernecker and Horst Pietschmann: History of Spain. From early modern times to the present. 2005, p. 27.
- ^ Helmut Berschin, Julio Fernández-Sevilla and Joseph Felixberger (eds.): The Spanish language. Distribution. History. Structure. 1987, p. 88.
- ^ Ralph Penny: A history of the Spanish language. 1991, p. 14.
- ^ Helmut Berschin, Julio Fernández-Sevilla and Joseph Felixberger (eds.): The Spanish language. Distribution. History. Structure. 1987, p. 88.
- ^ Ralph Penny: A history of the Spanish language. 1991, p. 88.
- ↑ Rafael Lapesa: Historia de la lengua española. 2008, p. 168f.
- ^ Ralph Penny: A history of the Spanish language. 1991, p. 15.
- ^ Helmut Berschin, Julio Fernández-Sevilla and Joseph Felixberger (eds.): The Spanish language. Distribution. History. Structure. 1987, p. 82.
- ↑ Rafael Lapesa: Historia de la lengua española. 2008, p. 166f.
- ^ Ralph Penny: A history of the Spanish language. 1991, p. 14.
- ^ Helmut Berschin, Julio Fernández-Sevilla and Joseph Felixberger (eds.): The Spanish language. Distribution. History. Structure. 1987, pp. 92f.
- ^ Helmut Berschin, Julio Fernández-Sevilla and Joseph Felixberger (eds.): The Spanish language. Distribution. History. Structure. 1987, p. 99ff.
- ^ Franz Lebsanft: Nation and language: the Spanish. In: Andreas Gardt (ed.): Nation and Language. The discussion of their relationship in the past and present. 2000, p. 650.
- ^ Franz Lebsanft: Nation and language: the Spanish. In: Andreas Gardt (ed.): Nation and Language. The discussion of their relationship in the past and present. 2000, p. 650.
- ^ Helmut Berschin, Julio Fernández-Sevilla and Joseph Felixberger (eds.): The Spanish language. Distribution. History. Structure. 1987, p. 115ff.
- ↑ Rafael Lapesa: Historia de la lengua española. 2008, p. 354ff.
- ^ Juan Ramón Lodares: Lengua y patria: sobre el Nacionalismo lingüístico en España. 2002, p. 17.
- ^ Juan Ramón Lodares: Lengua y patria: sobre el Nacionalismo lingüístico en España. 2002, p. 143.
- ^ Helmut Berschin, Julio Fernández-Sevilla and Joseph Felixberger (eds.): The Spanish language. Distribution. History. Structure. 1987, p. 45.
- ^ Helmut Berschin, Julio Fernández-Sevilla and Joseph Felixberger (eds.): The Spanish language. Distribution. History. Structure. 1987, p. 42.
- ^ Helmut Berschin, Julio Fernández-Sevilla and Joseph Felixberger (eds.): The Spanish language. Distribution. History. Structure. 1987, p. 42.
- ^ Franz Lebsanft: Nation and language: das Spanische In: Andreas Gardt (Hrsg.): Nation und Sprache. The discussion of their relationship in the past and present. 2000, p. 656.
- ↑ Rafael Lapesa: Historia de la lengua española. 2008, p. 389.
- ^ Helmut Berschin, Julio Fernández-Sevilla and Joseph Felixberger (eds.): The Spanish language. Distribution. History. Structure. 1987, p. 46.
- ^ Gregorio Salvador: Política lingüística y sentido común. 1992, p. 80ff.
- ^ Helmut Berschin, Julio Fernández-Sevilla and Joseph Felixberger (eds.): The Spanish language. Distribution. History. Structure. 1987, p. 46.
- ^ Franz Lebsanft: Spanish language culture. Studies on the evaluation and maintenance of public language usage in Spain today. 1997, p. 232ff.
- ^ Franz Lebsanft: Spanish language culture. Studies on the evaluation and maintenance of public language usage in Spain today. 1997, pp. 94-137.
- ^ Franz Lebsanft: Nation and language: the Spanish. In: Andreas Gardt (ed.): Nation and Language. The discussion of their relationship in the past and present. 2000, p. 644ff.
- ^ Gregorio Salvador: Política lingüística y sentido común. 1992, p. 70ff.
- ↑ European Commission, Special Eurobarometer 386 - The European citizens and their languages (PDF; 8.7 MB)
- ↑ Institut d´Estadística de Catalunya, Enquesta d´usos lingüístics de la població 2013 ( Catalan ) (PDF; 7.0 MB)
- ↑ Institut d'Estadística de les Illes Balears Enquesta Modular d'hàbits socials 2010 - Usus lingüístics ( Catalan ) ( page no longer available , search in web archives ) Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Generalitat Valenciana - Conselleria d´Educació, Enquesta 2010 Coneixement i ús social del valencià ( English )
- ↑ the other classification options were "not at all" or something "
- ↑ a b Gobierno Vasco, Sistema de indicadores lingüísticos de Euskal Herria ( Spanish ) when using this website, please note: The data was not only collected for the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country itself, but for the entire "historical" Basque Country ( Euskal Herria ). The data can be selected according to territories, the meaning being the following: CAV = Autonomous Community of Basque Country ( Comunidad Autónoma Vasca ), País Vasco Norte = French Basque Country , Navarra = Autonomous Community of Navarre, País Vasco = all areas together
- ↑ a b c d "other" will naturally be predominantly Spanish
- ↑ a b Basque is not spoken or only "with difficulty", but is well understood (PDF)
- ↑ the last published information from the regional government of Navarre is from 1996.
- ↑ Instituto Gallego de Estatística, Encuesta de condiciones de vida de las familias ( Spanish / Galician )
