Economic history of the Qing Dynasty

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Xián Fēng Tōng Bǎo (咸豐 通寶), a widespread copper coin from the Xiánfēng era of the Qing period
Dragon flag of the Qing Dynasty from 1889 to 1912

The economic history of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) in China is characterized by a strong increase in population and increasing economic backwardness and dependence on foreign countries in the second phase. While China was economically self-sufficient at the beginning of the Qing rule, it became increasingly dependent on European colonial powers in the 19th century and sank to the status of a semi-colony at the end of the Qing dynasty.

After a stable economic phase, the population doubled. In the eighteenth century reforms were carried out in the economic system. Foreign trade with Europe began and led to the so-called Opium Wars , which the Empire of China lost. China was forced into foreign trade with the so-called unequal treaties . The destabilization led to devastating civil wars and other wars such as the Boxer Rebellion , which finally sealed the end of the dynasty.

General situation

After famine as a result of the unrest surrounding the change of dynasty from the Ming dynasty to the Qing dynasty, the situation stabilized in the 1680s. During the early Qing period, domestic trade flourished and foreign markets gained relevance. Trade barriers that were introduced during the Ming period have been lifted. Foreign foods such as the potato were introduced during the 18th century . This, together with a sustained period of peace during this time, led to a massive population growth from around 180 to 400 million people. Although reforms were carried out in the economic system during the 18th century, there was a balanced trade balance with the West through the export of tea , silk and handicrafts, and the markets developed significantly, the Chinese economy could no longer cope with the rapidly growing economies of the Keeping up with European countries during the Industrial Revolution . Government intervention, such as a state monopoly on salt and the limited granting of licenses to traders, restricted the free market.

Map with after the Treaty of Nanking certain treaty ports and Hong Kong
Imports of opium to China from 1650 to 1880

Although the Qing State took isolationist measures, foreign trade with Europe grew by 4% per year between 1719 and 1806. The Chinese state stipulated that silver was the main medium of exchange for Chinese goods from abroad . The UK ran into a silver deficit as a result of this move, as it imported enormous amounts of tea from China in the 18th century, creating an unbalanced trade balance for Great Britain. Eventually opium was smuggled into China as an illegal medium of exchange by the British East India Company (banned in China) . China tried to prevent this development through appeals and finally bans. The British government found the strict enforcement of these bans unacceptable. This conflict between the two nations led to the First Opium War in 1839. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Nanking , an unequal treaty which included customs privileges for Great Britain and the cession of the island of Hong Kong . The Second Opium War followed from 1856 to 1860 , in which the British government enforced further trade advantages and freer imports of British goods, as well as legalizing the opium trade. A period of rebellion in China followed. The Boxer Rebellion in 1900 was a xenophobic rebellion that was put down by an expeditionary force from Western powers. These unrest came to an end with the so-called " Boxer Protocol ". The Chinese economy was weakened during this time by a massive outflow of silver, which led to soaring domestic silver prices. The exchange rate for one ounce of silver at one point was 1000 copper coins . Since the majority of the population was rewarded with copper coins, many could not pay their taxes that had to be paid in silver, which led to reduced government revenues. In 1911, the last Qing emperor, Pu Yi, was overthrown by rebels.

trade

The isolationist trade barriers and xenophobic restrictions on traffic routes introduced under the Ming dynasty in the 14th century have largely been lifted. This development was similar to the late Ming expansion, but the Qing trade was shaped by domestic trade and overseas trade relations.

Circular economy and markets

In 1669 the large pharmacy Tóngréntáng (同仁堂) was opened in Beijing . She is still a leader in traditional Chinese medicine today .

In the middle of the 16th to the 18th century, the economy of the Qing dynasty transformed into a kind of circular economy : farmers who previously only cultivated for their own personal needs began to offer some of their products for sale and exchange them for other consumer goods. This type of networking, which was new to China, meant that by the end of the 18th century, more than a tenth of the grain cultivated and half of the cotton were for sale in markets. The market days were staggered so that they did not overlap with those of neighboring villages. Bigger cities had markets all week. These mostly centrally located cities were trading hubs. Medical goods or tools made their way from the daily markets in the big cities to the smaller towns and villages. In order to ensure stable growth of the markets, markets were actively promoted by not restricting traders' mobility, creating trade contracts and preventing cartels . Traders move several goods, so that a variety of goods was guaranteed. On the one hand, there was greater competition and competition among traders who wanted to sell their goods at the best possible price or exchange. On the other hand, there were no quality controls, so there was no guarantee for goods that were already passed on to the 10th or 20th dealer. This included tea ( Hunan and Fujian ), salt ( Anhui ) and medicine ( Sichuan ), but also wool and silk clothing. Cities that mastered a certain craft experienced an upswing. Some expanded so rapidly that they became the focal point of trade. One of these was the city of Yangzhou , which lies between the Yangtze and Huai rivers . Suzhou became the administrative center for southern Jiangsu , a neighboring province of Shanghai . The region experienced a boom through its silk trade to become the cultural, industrial and commercial capital of Southeast China. During this time, many small traders became rich, creating a wealthy middle class. In addition to their newfound power, they use their wealth to achieve a higher social status within the Qing hierarchy, for example by purchasing scholarly licenses.

Merchandise

Qing Period Yellow Vase: The color was known as imperial yellow, after the Qing Dynasty's yellow dragon flag.

Domestic trade ranged from cheaper goods (cotton, corn, beans) to vegetables, fertilizers , wood as well as animal products and oils. The price was heavily dependent on the harvest and the season . Other sales areas mainly included: food production, textile industry, tea harvest, porcelain production , paper and sugar production. Cotton became the most widely used textile in the late Qing period. The cultivation of the plants spread to eastern Shandong , northern Hebei and central Chinese Hubei . Their demand grew so dramatically that the Jiangnan region had to import from Fujian, Guangdong , Shandong and Henan . In the 19th century, so much cotton was traded that imports were four times higher than exports. The great demand for grain such as rice, especially in the Yangtze Delta, promoted rice cultivation in other provinces. The demand for fresh rice and other types of grain could not be satisfied all year round, so granaries were necessary. The price was based on the harvest time.

Fiscal policy

The state treasury was regularly replenished, so that low taxes could relieve the farmers and raise the salaries of officials. The Manchurians cracked down on tax evasion. Taxes rose due to scarcity of resources and wars. Corruption and fraud became commonplace. During the Taiping Rebellion of 1851–1864, the government had large expenditures that were used to suppress the uprisings. The state was unable to solve the administrative and financial problems and increased taxes, which put an additional burden on the population.

Price stability

The government of the Qing Dynasty tried to counteract a famine by maintaining a certain price stability . In addition to the orientation towards the locally preferred grain, the government used various tools for price stability. Local sales from granaries were priced below market: 5% below market if the harvest was good, 10% if the harvest was poor. In addition, grain was distributed within the province to keep prices from rising and to meet demand. The system of tribute rice ( Chinese  漕 糧 , pinyin cáoliáng ), which was used in earlier dynasties, was reintroduced in the Qing dynasty. Purchases made by the government in the market were used to maintain price stability.

literature

  • Chuan, Han-sheng; Kraus, Richard A .: Mid-Chi'ng Rice Markets and Trade: An Essay in Price History. Cambridge, 1975.
  • Myers, H. Ramon; Wang, Yeh-Chien: Economic developments, 1644-1800. In: Peterson, Willard J. (Eds.), The Cambridge History of China. Volume 9, Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Wakeman, Frederic: The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China . University of California Press, Berkeley 1985, pp. 646-650 .
  2. ^ A b c d e Rowe, William T .: China's Last Empire: The Great Qing . Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge 2009, p. 122-123 .
  3. ^ A b Fairbank, John K .: The creation of the Treaty System . In: Fairbank, John K. (Ed.): The Cambridge History of China . tape 10 . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1978, pp. 191 .
  4. ↑ a b Myers, H. Ramon; Wang, Yeh-Chien: Economic developments, 1644-1800 . In: Peterson, Willard J. (Ed.): The Cambridge History of China . tape 9 . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, pp. 609 .
  5. ^ Franz-Willing, Georg: Recent History of China - 1840 to the Present . 1985, p. 24-39 .
  6. ^ Vogelsang, Kai: China's history . Stuttgart 2012, p. 447 .
  7. ^ Porter, Jonathan: Imperial China, 1350-1900 . Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2016, pp. 196 .
  8. ^ Porter, Jonathan: Imperial China, 1350-1900 . Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2016, pp. 203 .
  9. ↑ Chuan, Han-sheng; Kraus, Richard A .: Mid-Chi'ng Rice Markets and Trade: An Essay in Price History . Cambridge 1975, p. 19 .
  10. ^ Fairbank, John K., Liu, K: Late Ch'ing, 1800-1911 . In: The Cambridge History of China . tape 11 . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1980, pp. 538 .
  11. ↑ Chuan, Han-sheng; Kraus, Richard A .: Mid-Chi'ng Rice Markets and Trade: An Essay in Price History . Cambridge 1975, p. 19, 30 .