Boxer Rebellion
Battle between Allied and Chinese forces
| date | Autumn 1899 to September 7, 1901 |
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| location | North china |
| exit | United eight states victory |
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United eight states: Japan Russia United Kingdom France United States German Empire Austria-Hungary Kingdom of Italy |
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The Boxer Rebellion or Boxer War ( Chinese 義和團 運動 / 义和团 运动, Pinyin Yìhétuán Yùndòng - "Movement of Associations for Justice and Harmony") is a Chinese movement against European, US and Japanese imperialism . The western name boxer refers to the traditional martial arts training of the first boxers who learned Yihetuan (義和團 / 义和团, Yìhétuán - “Association for Justice and Harmony”) or Yihequan (義 和 拳 / 义 和 拳, Yìhéquán - “Fists of Justice and harmony ”).
In the spring and summer of 1900, the attacks of the Boxer movement against foreigners and Chinese Christians brought about a war between China and the United States (consisting of the German Empire, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Austria-Hungary, Russia and the USA), which ended with a defeat for the Chinese and the conclusion of the so-called "Boxer Protocol" in September 1901. Since the term “Boxer Rebellion” one-sidedly reflects the imperialist perspective (the Chinese government was expressly supported by the Boxers), the term “Boxer War” is also used or the Chinese term is used.
prehistory
Conflicts between Christians and non-Christians arose in China after the establishment of the first Christian communities, when Christians refused to pay local (informal) taxes that were mainly used for religious purposes. Increasing disagreements between these opponents have occasionally led to violent clashes. In addition, within a short period of time there were two wars in which China was attacked by western states: the First Opium War (1839 to 1842) against Great Britain and the Second Opium War (1856 to 1860) against Great Britain and France. These wars further fueled Chinese reservations about Christian, Western foreigners.
Immediately after the uprising, Chinese authors spread the thesis that the "Boxers" were an offshoot of the rebellious sect White Lotus , which had organized a substantial uprising from 1795 to 1804. Today the prevailing opinion is that the “boxers” were a social movement that had formed between 1898 and 1900 as a direct reaction to the mood of crisis at the end of the 19th century. Her original focus was in Shandong Province , where she was able to tie in with existing organizations such as the " Dadao Society" , or " Society of the Great Sabers " (大刀 會 / 大刀 会, Dàdāohuì - literally "Society of the Great Knives") . In the spring and summer of 1900 it then spread over large parts of northern China.
The boxers were primarily influenced by folk culture and religion, especially by the various martial arts schools . The movement was characterized by:
- a loose organizational structure with independent groups clustered around local leaders;
- Members drawn primarily from rural areas and gathered in small provincial towns;
- collective mass trances under the alleged influence of popular religious gods and
- Invulnerability rituals, from which protection against modern firearms was hoped.
The emergence of the boxer movement was essentially influenced by four factors:
- the western imperialism of the unequal treaties , through which all larger European states as well as the USA and since 1895 also Japan forced legal and economic privileges from China (especially the extraterritoriality of their citizens);
- the inner-Chinese conflict between reformers and conservatives at the imperial court, which culminated in 1898 with the suppression of the Hundred-Day Reform by the conservative faction around the Empress Dowager Cixi ;
- the special position of the Christian mission in the interior, also based on unequal treaties , where the missionaries intervened in local disputes with the help of the foreign consuls;
- the mood of crisis in northern China triggered by a series of natural disasters and subsequent famines in the late 1890s.
Whether foreign trade ( import ) actually made many people unemployed and thus triggered the Boxer Rebellion is a matter of controversy.
The boxers blamed the foreigners, and secondarily the Chinese Christians, for the disturbance of the natural environment and social harmony. They called for China's enemies to be eliminated by force in order to restore this harmony. They appeared as supporters of the ruling Qing dynasty (Manchu dynasty). One of their best-known slogans was: "Support the Qing and destroy the strangers."
Nevertheless, the imperial court tried to suppress the boxers until the spring of 1900. However, because of the loose organizational structure of the boxers, the attempts failed. It was only when the foreigners then put massive pressure on the government in Beijing that Cixi and some of the senior civil servants changed their minds and began to see the boxers as allies against the foreigners.
The Boxer Rebellion
The attack of the "boxers" on the foreign embassies
As early as January 11, 1900, the Dowager Empress Cixi (outdated: Tz'u-Hsi), the regent of China, announced in an edict that some of the boxers were law-abiding people. On January 27, the European colonial powers, Japan and the US called on the Chinese government to protect European institutions from the boxers. Efforts to suppress the movement continued. Boxers were banned on April 15, but since regular imperial troops in Beijing and Tianjin (outdated: Tientsin) allied with them, the ban could not be enforced. In May, the movement reached the vicinity of the capital Beijing and began attacking foreigners and the railway lines leading to the coast. Riots claimed 73 lives on May 18 alone. The foreign envoys in Beijing then ordered around 350 soldiers to serve as embassy guards in Beijing, who arrived there between May 31 and June 3. In the days that followed, the boxers intensified their attacks against Chinese Christians as well as foreign institutions and began to spread the uprising into the city of Beijing. The hatred of the Chinese Christians stems from the fact that quarrels with traditional Chinese often led the Christians to turn to their European missionaries, who then regularly decided the dispute in favor of the Christians through their special rights and their legations.
The first allied counter-attack and its failure
On June 10, 1900, a 2066-strong international expeditionary force marched into Tianjin under the command of British Admiral Sir Edward Hobart Seymour to protect the embassies in Beijing. However, it was stopped by the boxers (June 14-18) and had to turn back. The roughly 473 foreigners, 451 soldiers and over 3,000 Chinese Christians in Beijing had meanwhile barricaded themselves in the legation district and in the Xishiku Church . There they were cut off from communication with the foreign bases on the coast because the boxers had cut the telegraph line.
In the meantime, however, a large international fleet that a relief army wanted to disembark was gathering off the coast of China.
Faced with this situation, the Allied troops issued an ultimatum to surrender the heavily fortified Chinese coastal forts of Dagu . On June 17, 75 minutes before the ultimatum expired, the Chinese opened fire. The forts had modern artillery, but the crews had little experience. Allied gunboats on the River Peiho in front of the forts returned fire, and in the next few hours the forts were stormed by the Allies despite fierce resistance.
On June 19, the imperial government issued an ultimatum to the European ambassadors in Beijing to leave China within 24 hours. On the same day the German marines were mobilized and sent to China. On June 20, the ambassador of the German government, Baron Clemens von Ketteler , was shot dead by a Manchurian banner soldier in Beijing on the street . Ketteler was on his way to the Foreign Ministry with his interpreter Heinrich Cordes to negotiate the ultimatum personally with the heads of this office, Princes Qing and Duan. The circumstances of Ketteler's murder have not yet been fully clarified. There are two different versions of the sequence of events of those directly involved. The translator Cordes presented the act as a targeted assassination attempt on Ketteler as a German envoy, initiated by the Chinese government. The assassin En Hai himself testified that the murder occurred in connection with the war order after the storming of the Dagu Fort. A shooting order was issued for all foreigners, there was no direct order to kill Kettelers. The assassin En Hai was arrested two months after the crime and publicly executed by beheading . Ketteler's successor as the German envoy was Alfons Mumm von Schwarzenstein .
On the news of the storming of the forts of Dagu, the imperial court issued an edict to its subjects on June 21st, which amounted to a declaration of war on the Allies. Imperial troops now officially fought alongside the boxers. Conversely, none of the western states formally declared war on China. Even according to international law, which was shaped by European law at the time, the storming and destruction of defenses of a foreign state and the march of armed men on its capital were clearly an act of war. However, it was at least controversial among the Allies whether international law could even be applied to China, since China was represented at the Hague Peace Conference of 1899 , but had not signed the land warfare order adopted there . The lack of a declaration of war put the war in China as a “ punitive expedition ” on the same level as other colonial wars that were waged against non-state-organized ethnic groups (“tribes”).
On June 26th, Seymour was defeated and withdrew to Tianjin. On July 3, China tried to persuade Japan to switch sides and form an alliance with China, but Japan rejected it on July 13.
The war in Beijing and Tianjin
Despite the unspoken declaration of war, the war had the character of a state war in the initial phase, as regular armies fought against each other, even though the Chinese troops were reinforced by boxer militias. They besieged the Legation Quarter in Beijing, where diplomats, missionaries , engineers and Chinese Christians had holed up. The British embassy became the command center for around 500 armed men who faced around 20,000 Chinese. However, the defense was organized by the individual embassies, which led to disputes and weakened the defense force. At the same time, the international concession in Tianjin (Tientsin) was besieged by the Chinese. However, there was also disagreement on the Chinese side. A number of high officials - above all the Grand Secretary Ronglu - rejected the behavior of the Empress Dowager, who even had several officials executed for her critical remarks. Observations that the Chinese artillery shot too deep, as well as unused modern artillery found after the siege in Beijing, suggest that the fight was not carried out with determination by the Chinese troops at the instigation of the Chinese Peace Party.
The international troops captured the city of Tianjin on July 14, 1900.
The second international expeditionary force
In the meantime, six European countries as well as the USA and Japan ( United eight States ) put together an expeditionary force for an intervention in China. The German Emperor Wilhelm II reacted immediately to the proposal for joint military action by European states, because in this context the increased role of the German Reich in world politics could be demonstrated. To his satisfaction, he was able to get the former German chief of staff, Field Marshal Alfred Graf von Waldersee, to take command of this joint expeditionary army. At the farewell to some of the German troops on July 27th in Bremerhaven , Wilhelm II gave his notorious Huns speech :
“A great task awaits you: you should atone for the grave injustice that has happened. The Chinese have overturned international law, they have made a mockery of the sacredness of the ambassador and the duties of hospitality in a way that has not been heard in world history. It is all the more outrageous since this crime was committed by a nation proud of its ancient culture. Proven the old Prussian proficiency, show yourselves as Christians in the joyful endurance of suffering, may honor and fame follow your flags and arms, set an example of discipline and discipline all over the world [...] If you come before the enemy, he will be defeated. Pardon is not given, prisoners are not taken. Whoever falls into your hands is in your hands. Just as the Huns made a name for themselves a thousand years ago under their King Etzel, which still makes them appear powerful in tradition, so may the name of Germany become known in China in such a way that a Chinese never dares to do it again, say one To look at Germans too curiously! "
Bernhard von Bülow , Chancellor Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst and the director of North German Lloyd made efforts to prevent this incendiary speech from spreading . In the long term she coined the term the Huns (used mainly in England) for the Germans, which was to play a role especially in the propaganda during the First World War .
The troops embarked from Europe came too late to take part in the relief of Tianjin and Beijing. The approximately 20,000-strong Allied force that marched from Tianjin on August 4, consisted primarily of British-Indian, Russian, Japanese and US troops (the latter had been transferred from the Philippines to China); Germans, French, Austrians and Italians only took part with a few departments of marine infantry .
The expeditionary force reached Beijing on August 13, 1900, which fell the following day. On August 15, the Dowager Empress and her council fled Beijing to Xi'an / Shaanxi by going on an "inspection trip". Beijing was sacked by the Allies for three days, which - in view of the high civilizational demands of the Europeans - alienated critics. Even cultural goods were stolen.
A certificate on the occasion of the China expedition of the 6th Company of the 3rd East Asian Infantry Regiment gives a clear overview of the course of the expedition over time. Departure with the steamer "Rhein und Palatia" in Bremerhaven on August 2, 1900. Trip to China via Gibraltar , Port Said ( Suez Canal ), Aden , Colombo , Singapore . Then the places in China: Peitang on September 20, 1900; Yung Shing Shien on December 15, 1900; Chou-Chouang December 24, 1900; Kwang-Tshang on February 20, 1901; Tshang-Tshöng-Puss on March 8, 1901; Huolu on April 24, 1901. There were also military operations in Taku , Tangku , Tianjin , Pautingfu , Ansu, Tien-Shien, Tsho-Tshou, Jau-Shane. She returned to Bremerhaven on August 9, 1901.
The Boxer Rebellion after the capture of Beijing
After the capture of Beijing, the character of the war changed. In an edict of September 7, Cixi blamed the boxers for the military defeat and ordered the provincial governors to use government troops against them again. On September 25, high officials involved in the uprising were demoted from the imperial court. At the same time, the Allied troops began to carry out “ punitive expeditions ” against “boxers' nests” and thus to break the last resistance. During their operations, the Allied troops were guilty of brutal excesses against the Chinese population (murders, looting, rape). Their aim was to spread terror and thereby deter the Chinese from any future revolt against the foreigners. However, the use of troops was limited to the northern Chinese province of Zhili , as the provincial governors of central and southern China concluded standstill agreements with the foreigners.
A total of 231 foreigners, including around 200 missionaries, and around 32,000 Christian Chinese fell victim to the boxers. Most of the missionaries were killed in the cities of Taiyuan and Baoding at the instigation of Governor Yuxian. In total, around 100,000 civilians were killed by the boxers. The Allied warfare killed around 5,000 civilians. 1003 foreign soldiers fell, mostly Japanese and Russians. There were around 2,000 deaths on the part of the Chinese military. The number of boxers killed is unknown.
After the uprising - the boxer protocol
The behavior of the Allied intervention troops did not only meet with approval at home. Above all from socialist and liberal, partly also from church circles, reservations against the intervention were expressed. In the opinion of the critics, under the pretext of protecting civilization, the soldiers themselves had violated the humanitarian principles of that civilization. Wilhelm II's speech in the Huns in particular was heavily criticized at home and abroad for the statement it contained not to give any pardon and not to take prisoners.
An example of an anti-militarist stance directed against Wilhelm II's policy is the May slogan from 1901, “Against Brodwucher und Hunnenkurs” on the front page of the influential Frankfurter SPD daily Volksstimme from May 1st , 1901, which ended with the words (for a detailed description, see under popular vote ):
“Be warned you who, through battle
glory, want to forge the peoples in chains;
We do not want any new Hunnism,
no, human welfare , freedom and peace! "
In some cases, the commanders involved in the military action even criticized each other. For example, the American commander noted: "It is safe to say that for every real boxer who was killed, there were fifteen harmless coolies and farm workers, including quite a few women and children, who were killed."
While Japan was campaigning for the integrity of China, Russia had 200,000 soldiers deployed to Manchuria in parallel to the negotiations , ostensibly to fight the boxers. They occupied Aigun on July 23 and Mukden on October 1 . On February 16, 1901, a treaty was concluded in the sense that China kept Manchuria, but the Russian troops remained in the country to protect the railway ("railway guards").
Since October 26, 1900, the experienced diplomat Li Hongzhang, as the emissary of the imperial court, negotiated the terms of peace. The empress widow, who fled to Gansu , accepted the terms of the colonial powers on January 10, 1901. On September 7, 1901, the so-called "Boxer Protocol" was signed. It found that
- the Chinese government must apologize for the murders of foreign diplomats (besides Ketteler also the Japanese legation secretary Count Akira Sugiyama (杉山 彬; 1862–1900)) and erect a memorial for Ketteler ("Ketteler-Bogen"),
- Insurgents are to be punished (many death sentences have been passed),
- the official exams in all cities where foreigners were killed should be suspended for five years,
- China reparations amounting to 1.4 billion gold marks through 1940 (70 million pounds sterling) and
- Have to pay compensation to affected foreigners ( boxer compensation ),
- no weapons may be bought and imported,
- the Legation Quarter in Beijing should be reserved and fortified exclusively for foreigners,
- the Dagu forts were to be razed and foreign bases were to be built on the railway line between Beijing and the coast,
- a modern foreign ministry must be set up with priority over all other ministries,
- an imperial edict is upheld that prohibits xenophobic organizations with the death penalty,
- the kowtowing (deep bow, honor) for foreign diplomats would be abolished (deep humiliation, along with a military parade in the Forbidden City , which was only open to Chinese officials).
Another point that was felt to be particularly humiliated was that Zaifeng , 2nd Prince Chun, the father of the last Chinese Emperor Puyi , who was in charge of the expiatory mission , should apologize personally in Berlin for the murder of Ketteler under degrading conditions. However, the Chinese delegation won a small diplomatic victory and was able to prevent the prince from kneeling in front of Kaiser Wilhelm II . The act of atonement could then finally take place on September 4, 1901 in the Grottensaal, Neues Palais in Potsdam , Sanssouci Park .
reception
In China
In the early years of the Republic of China , the intellectuals of the New Culture Movement were more likely to have negative assessments of the Boxer movement and its goals. The superstitious elements of the Boxer movement, which were seen as a symbol of the backwardness of Chinese society towards the West, were emphasized. This continued the contemporary assessment of Chinese scholars. From the mid-1920s this picture began to change, and the revolutionary, patriotic and anti-imperialist aspects of the Boxer Rebellion were now more prominent, although the de facto alliance of the Boxers with the Qing dynasty continued to be rejected. After the communists' victory in the civil war in 1949, this became fully the official reading. There was a glorification and exaggeration of the boxers, who were even regarded as the forerunners of communism. Hero worship and mythologization reached a high point at the time of the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). In particular, the " Luminous Red Lanterns " were stylized as a model during this time.
A forged document on the Boxer Rebellion: Edmund Backhouse and the "Diary of Jingshan"
The British Sir Edmund Backhouse gained access to the eunuchs at the imperial court through the legend of a private scholar and collector of historical texts and documents since 1898. After the Boxer Rebellion, he "processed" his information into two propaganda tracts which later justified the later "punitive expedition" ("Reports and memoirs from the court in Beijing", "China under the Empress Dowager"). As an alleged "source", Backhouse prepared a Chinese text - the alleged "Diary of Jingshan", a high-ranking official at the Beijing court - which was supposed to document the determination of the Beijing War Party and especially the Dowager Empress herself to annihilate foreigners in China. It was not until 1976 that the British historian Hugh Trevor-Roper revealed that this text was a forgery. Backhouse's forgery could in no way influence the course of the war - if only because its author was locked in Beijing himself. Diana Preston states that it took years for the supposed diary of Jingshan to "come to light." However, it shaped the public perception of the war in Europe and North America for many decades.
Street names in Germany
In Germany, a number of street names are related to the Boxer Rebellion. In Berlin, were Takustraße after bombarded by the allies Taku Forts named the Iltisstraße after used the Boxer Rebellion German gunboat SMS Iltis and Lansstraße by Wilhelm von Lans , the commander of this gunboat. Despite decades of demands to change the street names because they heroized colonialism and war crimes such as looting and rape, the name changes were not carried out, but a stele was erected to explain the historical context.
Museum reception
Soldiers from the Austro-Hungarian Navy were also involved in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion . In the Army History Museum in Vienna, in which the history of the Austrian Navy is documented in detail, there are also loot and photos from this operation in China in a separate showcase. The photos show sailors from the recently completed SMS Aspern on a customary vehicle as well as Taku forts after the capture. Further photos document August 20, 1900 in Beijing, for example a gate of the city wall was shot on fire. You can also see the boxer's weapons, robes and braids that were probably cut off from the rebels in order to humiliate them.
media
play
- Bruno Frank : The Forbidden City . A play in three acts. Basel 1940.
Movie
- Beheading the Chinese Prisoner , USA 1900, directed by Siegmund Lubin
- Alarm in Beijing . D 1937, director: Herbert Selpin , production Minerva-Tonfilm GmbH, world premiere August 20, 1937 Ufa-Palast am Zoo, Berlin.
- 55 days in Beijing . Drama / historical film / monumental film , 155 min., Production: Samuel Bronston Productions , USA, 1963.
- Empire: The Last Days of Beijing. Docu-drama , 45 min., Production: ZDF , first broadcast: May 21, 2006.
- Beijing 1900 - Boxer Rebellion . Docu-drama , 52 min., Director: Tilman Remme, D 2008. A version shortened to 40 min. Was broadcast under the title Caught in Beijing - Uprising of the Boxers .
literature
Monographs and edited volumes
- Richard O'Connor: The Boxer Rebellion. Violence and tragedy. Heyne Verlag, Munich, 1980, ISBN 3-453-48064-3 .
- Gerd Kaminski: The Boxer Rebellion - Myth Unmasked. Löcker Verlag, Vienna 2000, ISBN 3-85409-325-X .
- Egbert Kieser: When China awoke. The Boxer Rebellion. Bechtle, Esslingen 1984, ISBN 3-7628-0435-4 .
- Collective for the "Series of the History of Modern China" (ed.): The Yihotuan Movement of 1900. Beijing 1978. (= History of Modern China 1840–1911. Volume 3).
- Susanne Kuss, Bernd Martin (Ed.): The German Reich and the Boxer Rebellion . Iudicium, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-89129-781-5 .
- Mechthild Leutner, Klaus Mühlhahn (Ed.): Colonial War in China. The suppression of the boxer movement 1900–1901. Links, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-86153-432-7 .
- Diana Preston: Rebellion in Beijing. The story of the Boxer Rebellion . DVA, Stuttgart 2001, ISBN 3-421-05407-X .
- Horst Rosteck, Roland Felber: The "Huns War" Kaiser Wilhelm II. German publishing house of the sciences, Berlin (GDR) 1987. ( Illustrated historical booklets No. 45)
- Gerhard Seyfried: Yellow Wind or The Boxer Rebellion. 2008, ISBN 978-3-8218-5797-8 .
- S. Noma (Ed.): Boxer Rebellion . In: Japan. An Illustrated Encyclopedia. Kodansha, 1993. ISBN 4-06-205938-X , p. 118.
Essays
- Ralph Erbar: "Beijing has to be shaved". The great European powers and the "Boxer Rebellion" in China 1900/01. In: Practice History. 4/1994, pp. 12-16.
- Tilemann Grimm: The Boxer Movement in China 1898–1901. In: Historical magazine. Vol. 224, Munich 1977, pp. 615-634.
- Kuo Heng-yü: boxer movement. In: Wolfgang Franke, Brunhild Staiger: China Handbook. A publication of the German Society for East Asian Studies in conjunction with the Institute for Asian Studies. Gütersloh 1974, Col. 175-178.
- Thoralf Klein : Atonement Gifts: The Boxer War. In: Ulrich van der Heyden, Joachim Zeller (ed.): “… Power and share in world domination.” Berlin and German colonialism. Unrast-Verlag, Münster 2005, ISBN 3-89771-024-2 , pp. 208-214.
- Günter Moltmann, Jürgen Lütt, Bernhard Dahm, Tilemann Grimm: Social protest movements in Asia in the time of imperialism. In: History in Science and Education. Vol. 29, No. 6, 1978, pp. 345-374.
Literature on individual aspects
- Peter Fleming : The Siege of Beijing. On the history of the Boxer Rebellion . Eichborn, Frankfurt 1997, ISBN 3-8218-4155-9 .
- Archibald Glover: A Thousand Miles of Miracles - The Dramatic Escape of China Missionaries at the Time of the Boxer Rebellion. Betanien, Oerlinghausen 2011, ISBN 978-3-935558-49-5 .
- Jacobus JAM Kuepers: China and the Catholic Mission in South Shantung 1882-1900. The story of a confrontation. Steyl 1974.
- Georg Lehner, Monika Lehner: Austria-Hungary and the "Boxer Rebellion" in China. StudienVerlag, Innsbruck et al. 2002, ISBN 3-7065-1713-2 .
- Bernd Martin: Soldier radicalization and massacres. The German first and second sea battalion in action in the "Boxer War" in China in 1900. In: Military history magazine. 69 (2010), ISSN 0026-3826 , pp. 221-241.
- Eckard Michels : The "East Asian Expeditionary Corps" of the German Empire in China 1900/01. In: Tanja Bührer, Christian Stachelbeck, Dierk Walter (eds.): Imperial wars from 1500 to today. Structures, actors, learning processes. Paderborn et al. 2011, ISBN 978-3-506-77337-1 , pp. 401-418.
- Bernd Sösemann: The so-called Huns speech of Wilhelm II. Text-critical and interpretative remarks on the speech of the emperor on July 27, 1900 in Bremerhaven. In: Historical magazine . Vol. 222, Munich 1976, pp. 343-358.
- Richard Szippel: A German View of the Boxer Rebellion in China: Max von Brandt and German Interests in China at the Turn of the Century. In: Academia - Humanities and Social Studies. (Nanzan University) 58, September 1993, pp. 47-76.
- Aljoscha Utermark: Images of China between exoticism and orientalism. Field post of German officers from the Boxer Rebellion 1900–1901 . Publishing house Dr. Kovač, Hamburg 2021, ISBN 978-3-339-12132-5 .
- Association for Hessian History and Regional Studies: China 1900. The Boxer Rebellion of the painter Theodor Rocholl and ancient China . 2000.
Contemporary works
- Admiral's Staff of the Navy (ed.): The Imperial Navy during the turmoil in China 1900–1901. , Berlin, EM Mittler 1903 digitized
- Eugen Binder von Krieglstein : The battles of the German expeditionary corps in China and their military lessons . Berlin 1902. ( digitized version )
- Alfred von Müller: The turmoil in China and the fighting of the allied troops. Berlin 1902. 2 volumes. (Digital copies: Volume 1 , Volume 2 )
- Adolph Obst et al .: Germany in China 1900–1901. Bagel, Düsseldorf 1902. ( digitized version )
- Rudolf Zabel : Germany in China. Leipzig 1902. ( digitized version )
Web links
- Literature on the Boxer Rebellion in the catalog of the German National Library
- “The» Boxers «and their Myth” , German Historical Museum (DHM), article on the occasion of the Qingdao (Tsingtau) exhibition , March 27 to July 19, 1998
- Boxer rebellion according to the representation of the DHM
- "Some data and facts about the Boxer uprising" - jaduland.de
- Boxer uprising in contemporary postcards and texts - boxeraufstand.de
- Contemporary documents on the Boxer Rebellion - boxeraufstand.com
- Boxer Rebellion - Summary of the War in China 1900/01 in: German Protected Areas
Footnotes
- ^ Walter Boy-Ed: Beijing and the surrounding area in 1900. Heckners Verlag, 1908 Wolfenbüttel
- ^ Fortunato Margiotti, Il cattolicismo nello Shansi (1958), p. 441.
- ^ Giovanni Ricci, Acta martyrum Sinensium anno 1900 in Provincia San-si occisorum - Acta Ordinis Fratrum Minorum 31 pp. 185-189.
- ^ Giovanni Ricci, Acta martyrum Sinensium anno 1900 in Provincia San-si occisorum - Acta Ordinis Fratrum Minorum 30 pages 329ff
- ↑ The Xishiku Church, also called Beitang, is a Catholic cathedral in Beijing, which was defended against boxers and regular Chinese troops in the summer of 1900 by French and Italian marines and Christian Chinese under Bishop Pierre-Marie-Alphonse Favier (Jean Mabire: Bloody summer in Beijing . Bergisch Gladbach: Lübbe, 1978, ISBN 3-404-65030-1 ).
- ↑ Federal Archives: Neuruppiner Bilderbogen “Storming of Tientsin”, 1900 ( memento of July 6, 2010 in the Internet Archive ), queried on July 13, 2010.
- ↑ quoted from Wolfgang J. Mommsen : Was the emperor to blame for everything? Ullstein Verlag, Berlin 2005, ISBN 3-548-36765-8 .
- ↑ Spiegel Online, November 13, 2012: Sound recording of the “Huns' Speech” surfaced?
- ^ BR: sound recording of Wilhelm II's speech found ( memento of April 14, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ Till Spurny: The looting of cultural assets in Beijing 1900/1901 . wvb Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Berlin, 2008, ISBN 978-3-86573-360-3 .
- ^ Hammond Atlas of the 20th Century , Hammond World Atlas Corp, 1996.
- ↑ Rudolph Joseph Rummel : China's Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900 ( Online )
- ^ Joel David Singer: Wages of War, 1816-1965: A Statistical Handbook. John Wiley & Sons Inc, 1972.
- ↑ Japan . In: Brockhaus' Kleines Konversations-Lexikon . 5th edition. Volume 1, F. A. Brockhaus, Leipzig 1911, pp. 891-892 .
- ↑ Heike Frick: Between disgust and admiration: The boxers in the cultural memory of China. In: Mechthild Leutner, Klaus Mühlhahn (ed.): Colonial War in China: The Suppression of the Boxer Movement 1900–1901. Ch. Links Verlag, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-86153-432-7 , pp. 212-221.
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↑ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2fuupD2oLjU see A hidden life. The enigma of Sir Edmund Backhouse . ISBN 0-333-19883-2 .
Publicist and historian Giles Milton on a forged text scroll: “ Backhouse's co-author Bland had deposited a Chinese text scroll in the British Museum . It was the basis of everything written about the Boxer Rebellion for more than half a century. But in 1976, Hugh Trevor-Roper discovered it was a fake. He also found out that Backhouse was working as a secret agent for the British government. " - ^ Diana Preston: Rebellion in Beijing. The story of the Boxer Rebellion. DVA, Stuttgart / Munich 2001, p. 412.
- ↑ Names from the Nazi era still relevant: Renaming streets stuck in a dead end . In: Berliner Zeitung . ( mobil.berliner-zeitung.de [accessed on April 3, 2017]).
- ^ Dossier: Street names with references to colonialism in Berlin. (PDF) Retrieved April 3, 2017 .
- ↑ Christian Kopp: Taku-, Lans- and Iltisstraße. Retrieved April 3, 2017 (UK English).
- ↑ Manfried Rauchsteiner , Manfred Litscher (Ed.): The Army History Museum in Vienna. Graz / Vienna 2000, p. 90.