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{{short description|13th letter of the Latin alphabet}}
{{About|the letter of the Roman alphabet|the letter of the [[Cyrillic script]] (М, м)|Em (Cyrillic)|the letter of the [[Greek script]] (Μ, μ) |Mu (letter)|other uses}}
{{technical reasons|M#|the programming language|M Sharp}}
{{distinguish|ញ|ᛖ|₥|ℳ|ෆ|ʍ}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{More citations needed|date=March 2016}}
{{Infobox grapheme
|name=M
|letter=M m
|script=[[Latin script]]
|type=[[Alphabet]]
|typedesc=ic and [[Logographic]]
|language=[[Latin language]]
|phonemes=[{{IPAlink|m}}]<br>[{{IPAlink|ɱ}}]<br>[{{IPAlink|n}}]<br>[{{IPAlink|n̼}}]<br>{{IPAc-en|ɛ|m}}
|unicode=U+004D, U+006D
|alphanumber=13
|number=1000
|fam1=<hiero>N35</hiero>
|fam2=[[File:Proto-semiticM-01.svg|20px|Maym]]
|fam3=[[File:Phoenician_mem.svg|20px|Phoenician Mem]]
|fam4=[[File:PhoenicianM-01.svg|20px]]
|fam5=[[File:Greek_Mu_04.svg|20px|Early Greek My]]
|fam6=[[μ|Μ μ]]
|fam7=[[File:EtruscanM-01.svg|20px]]
|fam8=[[𐌌]]
|usageperiod=~-700 to present
|children={{bull}}[[₥]]<br>{{bull}}[[™]]<br>{{bull}}[[℠]]<br>{{bull}}[[ᴟ]]<br>{{bull}}[[ꬺ]]<br>{{bull}}[[ꟽ]] [[ɯ]] [[ɰ]]<br>{{bull}}[[ꟿ]]<br>{{bull}}[[ᛗ]]
|sisters=[[М]]<br>[[Ӎ]]<br>[[Mem|מ<br>ם<br>م<br>ܡ]]<br>[[מּ]]<br>[[ﬦ]]<br>[[File:Mem.svg|10px|Aramaic Mem]]<br>[[Ⰿ]]<br>[[ࠌ]]<br>[[𐌼]]
|equivalents=
|associates=[[List of Latin-script digraphs#M|m(x)]]
|direction=Left-to-Right
|image=File:Latin_letter_M.svg}}
{{Latin letter info|m}}
'''M''', or '''m''', is the thirteenth [[Letter (alphabet)|letter]] of the [[Latin alphabet]], used in the [[English alphabet|modern English alphabet]], the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is [[English alphabet#Letter names|''em'']] (pronounced {{IPAc-en|'|ɛ|m}}), plural ''ems''.<ref>"M" ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]],'' 2nd edition (1989); ''[[Merriam-Webster]]'s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged'' (1993); "em," op. cit.</ref>
==History==
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
! Egyptian hieroglyph<br/>"n"
! Phoenician<br/>[[Mem]]
! Western Greek<br/>[[Mu (letter)|Mu]]
! Etruscan<br/>M
! Latin<br/>M
|--- align=center
|<hiero>n</hiero>
| [[File:PhoenicianM-01.svg|25x25px]]
| [[File:Greek Mu 04.svg|35px]]
| [[File:EtruscanM-01.svg|25px]]
| [[File:Capitalis monumentalis M.SVG|x30px|Latin M]]
|}
The letter M is derived from the [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] [[Mem]], via the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] [[Mu (letter)|Mu]] (Μ, μ). [[Semitic alphabets|Semitic]] Mem is most likely derived from a "[[Proto-Sinaitic script|Proto-Sinaitic]]" ([[Bronze Age]]) adoption of the [[N-water ripple (n hieroglyph)|"water" ideogram]] in [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|Egyptian writing]]. The Egyptian sign had the [[acrophonic]] value {{IPA|/n/}}, from the Egyptian word for "water", ''nt''; the adoption as the Semitic letter for {{IPA|/m/}} was presumably also on acrophonic grounds, from the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] word for "water", ''[[:wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Semitic/maʾ-|*mā(y)-]]''.<ref>See F. Simons, "Proto-Sinaitic — Progenitor of the Alphabet" ''Rosetta'' 9 (2011):
Figure Two: "Representative selection of proto-Sinaitic characters with comparison to Egyptian hieroglyphs", (p. 38)
Figure Three: "Chart of all early proto-Canaanite letters with comparison to proto-Sinaitic signs" (p. 39),
Figure Four: "Representative selection of later proto-Canaanite letters with comparison to early proto-Canaanite and proto-Sinaitic signs" (p. 40). See also: Goldwasser (2010), following Albright (1966), "Schematic Table of Proto-Sinaitic Characters" ([https://www.apocalypse2008-2015.com/images/Proto-Sinaitic_Table.gif fig. 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160703163923/http://apocalypse2008-2015.com/images/Proto-Sinaitic_Table.gif |date=2016-07-03 }}).</ref>
==Use in writing systems==
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
|+ Pronunciation of {{angbr|m}} by language
! Orthography
! Phonemes
|-
! {{nwr|[[Standard Chinese]]}} ([[Pinyin]])
| {{IPAslink|m}}
|-
! [[English orthography|English]]
| {{IPAslink|m}}, ''silent''
|-
! [[French orthography|French]]
| {{IPAslink|m}}
|-
! [[German orthography|German]]
| {{IPAslink|m}}
|-
! [[Portuguese orthography|Portuguese]]
| {{IPAslink|m}}, ''silent''
|-
! [[Spanish orthography|Spanish]]
| {{IPAslink|m}}
|-
! [[Turkish alphabet|Turkish]]
| {{IPAslink|m}}
|}
===English===
In [[English orthography|English]], {{angbr|m}} represents the [[voiced bilabial nasal]] {{IPA|/m/}}.
The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] (first edition) says that {{angbr|m}} is sometimes a [[vowel]], in words like ''spasm'' and in the [[suffix]] ''-ism''. In modern terminology, this is described as a [[syllabic consonant]] (IPA {{IPA|/m̩/}}).
M is the [[Letter frequency|fourteenth most frequently used letter]] in the English language.
==
The letter {{angbr|m}} represents the [[voiced bilabial nasal]] {{IPA|/m/}} in the orthography of Latin as well as in those of many modern [[language]]s.
In [[Washo language|Washo]], lower-case {{angbr|m}} represents a [[voiced bilabial nasal]] {{IPA|/m/}}, while upper-case {{angbr|M}} represents a [[voiceless bilabial nasal]] {{IPA|/m̥/}}.
===Other systems===
In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], {{angbr|m}} represents the [[voiced bilabial nasal]] {{IPA|/m/}}.
==Other uses==
{{main article|M (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Miehikkala.vaakuna.svg|thumb|upright=0.7|Styled letter M in the coat of arms of [[Miehikkälä]]]]
* The [[Roman numeral]] M represents the number [[1000 (number)|1000]], though it was not used in Roman times. There is, however, scant evidence that the letter was later introduced in the early centuries A.D. by the Romans.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedintro0000gord | url-access=registration | quote=roman numerals. | title=Illustrated Introduction to Latin Epigraphy | publisher=[[University of California Press]] | date=1983 | access-date=3 October 2015 | author=Gordon, Arthur E. | pages=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedintro0000gord/page/45 45]| isbn=9780520038981 }}</ref>
* [[Unit prefix]] M (mega), meaning one million times, and m (milli) meaning one-thousandth.<ref name="freedict">{{cite web |url=https://acronyms.thefreedictionary.com/m |title=What does M stand for? |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website=The Free Dictionary |publisher= |access-date=9 February 2021 |quote= |archive-date=25 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125054852/https://acronyms.thefreedictionary.com/M |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="collins">{{cite web |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/m_1 |title=M definition and meaning |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website=Collins English Dictionary |publisher= |access-date=9 February 2021 |quote= |archive-date=27 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227212738/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/m_1 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* m is the standard abbreviation for [[metre]] (or meter) in the [[International System of Units]] (SI).<ref name="freedict"/> However, m is also used as an abbreviation for [[mile]].<ref name="collins"/>
* M is used as the unit abbreviation for [[molar concentration|molarity]].<ref name="freedict" />
* With money amounts, m or M can mean one million: For example, $5m is five million dollars.<ref name="freedict"/><ref name="collins"/>
* M often represents male or masculine, especially in conjunction with F for female or feminine.<ref name="freedict"/><ref name="collins"/>
* [[M (James Bond)]] is a fictional character in [[Ian Fleming]]'s [[James Bond (literary character)|James Bond]] book and [[James Bond filmography|film]] series.
* In typography, an [[em dash]] is a punctuation symbol whose width is equal to that of a capital letter M.
==Related characters==
<!-- Please only list characters (symbols in a writing system, but not just convenience code points in Unicode) that are actually related in terms of origin to the letter that is the topic of this article. Characters that merely look subjectively similar need not apply. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources before adding more. -->
===Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet===
*M with [[diacritic]]s: [[Ḿ|Ḿ ḿ]] [[Dot (diacritic)|Ṁ ṁ Ṃ ṃ]] M̃ m̃ ᵯ<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2003/03174r2-mid-tilde.pdf|title=L2/03-174R2: Proposal to Encode Phonetic Symbols with Middle Tilde in the UCS|date=2003-09-30|first=Peter|last=Constable|access-date=2018-03-24|archive-date=2017-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011013938/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2003/03174r2-mid-tilde.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
*[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]-specific symbols related to M: {{IPA link|ɱ}} {{IPA link|ɰ}}
*Ɱ : [[Ɱ|Capital M with hook]]
*[[Uralic Phonetic Alphabet]]-specific symbols related to M:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2002/02141-n2419-uralic-phonetic.pdf|title=L2/02-141: Uralic Phonetic Alphabet characters for the UCS|date=2002-03-20|first1=Michael|last1=Everson|author-link1=Michael Everson|display-authors=etal|access-date=2018-03-24|archive-date=2018-02-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180219081033/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2002/02141-n2419-uralic-phonetic.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
**{{Unichar|1D0D|LATIN LETTER SMALL CAPITAL M}}
**{{Unichar|1D1F|LATIN SMALL LETTER SIDEWAYS TURNED M}}
**{{Unichar|1D39|MODIFIER LETTER CAPITAL M}}
**{{Unichar|1D50|MODIFIER LETTER SMALL M}}
**{{Unichar|1D5A|MODIFIER LETTER SMALL TURNED M}}
*Some symbols related to M were used by the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet prior to its formal standardization in 1902:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2009/09028-n3571-upa-additions.pdf|title=L2/09-028: Proposal to encode additional characters for the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet|date=2009-01-27|first1=Klaas|last1=Ruppel|first2=Tero|last2=Aalto|first3=Michael|last3=Everson|access-date=2018-03-24|archive-date=2017-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011014359/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2009/09028-n3571-upa-additions.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
**{{Unichar|2098|LATIN SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER M}}
**{{Unichar|A7FA|LATIN LETTER SMALL CAPITAL TURNED M}}
*The [[Teuthonista]] phonetic transcription system uses {{Unichar|AB3A|LATIN SMALL LETTER M WITH CROSSED-TAIL}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2011/11202-n4081-teuthonista.pdf|title=L2/11-202: Revised proposal to encode "Teuthonista" phonetic characters in the UCS|date=2011-06-02|first1=Michael|last1=Everson|first2=Alois|last2=Dicklberger|first3=Karl|last3=Pentzlin|first4=Eveline|last4=Wandl-Vogt|access-date=2018-03-24|archive-date=2017-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011012426/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2011/11202-n4081-teuthonista.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
*Other variations used for phonetic transcription:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2004/04132-n2740-phonetic.pdf|title=L2/04-132 Proposal to add additional phonetic characters to the UCS|date=2004-04-19|first=Peter|last=Constable|access-date=2018-03-24|archive-date=2017-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011014355/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2004/04132-n2740-phonetic.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> [[ᶆ]] [[ᶬ]] [[ᶭ]]
*Ɯ ɯ : [[Ɯ|Turned M]]
*ꟽ : Inverted M was used in ancient Roman texts to stand for ''mulier'' (woman)<ref name="L206269">{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2006/06269-add-roman.pdf|title=L2/06-269: Proposal to Add Additional Ancient Roman Characters to UCS|date=2006-08-01|first=David J.|last=Perry|access-date=2018-03-24|archive-date=2019-06-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614231608/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2006/06269-add-roman.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
*ꟿ : Archaic M was used in ancient Roman texts to abbreviate the personal name 'Manius' (A regular capital M was used for the more common personal name 'Marcus')<ref name="L206269"/>
*ℳ : currency symbol for [[German gold mark|Mark]]
===Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets===
*𐤌 : [[Phoenician alphabet|Semitic]] letter [[Mem]], from which the following symbols originally derive
**Μ μ : [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] letter [[Mu (letter)|Mu]], from which M derives
***{{Script|Copt|Ⲙ ⲙ}} : [[Coptic alphabet|Coptic]] letter Me, which derives from Greek Mu
***М м : [[Cyrillic]] letter [[Em (Cyrillic)|Em]], also derived from Mu
***𐌌 : [[Old Italic script|Old Italic]] M, which derives from Greek Mu, and is the ancestor of modern Latin M
****{{Script|Runr|ᛗ}} : [[Runes|Runic]] letter [[Mannaz]], which derives from old Italic M
***{{Script|Goth|𐌼}} : [[Gothic alphabet|Gothic]] letter manna, which derives from Greek Mu
===Ligatures and abbreviations===
*₥ : [[Mill (currency)]]
*™ : [[Trademark symbol]]
*℠ : [[Service mark symbol]]
==Other representations==
===Computing <span class="anchor" id="Computing codes"></span>===
{{charmap
| 004D | 006D | FF2D | FF4D | name1 = Latin Capital Letter M | name2 = Latin Small Letter M | name3 = FULLWIDTH LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M | name4 = FULLWIDTH LATIN SMALL LETTER M
| map1 = [[EBCDIC]] family | map1char1 = D4 | map1char2 = 94
| map2 = [[ASCII]] <sup>1</sup> | map2char1 = 4D | map2char2 = 6D
}}
: <sup>1</sup> {{midsize|Also for encodings based on ASCII, including the DOS, Windows, ISO-8859 and Macintosh families of encodings.}}
===Other===
{{Letter other reps
|NATO=Mike
|Morse=––
|Character=M
|Braille=⠍
|fingerspelling=M
}}
{{clear}}
==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
*{{Commons-inline|M}}
*{{Wiktionary-inline|M}}
*{{Wiktionary-inline|m}}
{{Latin alphabet|M|}}
[[Category:ISO basic Latin letters]]
|
Latest revision as of 17:28, 9 May 2024
This article needs additional citations for verification. (March 2016) |
M | |
---|---|
M m | |
Usage | |
Writing system | Latin script |
Type | Alphabetic and Logographic |
Language of origin | Latin language |
Phonetic usage | [m] [ɱ] [n] [n̼] /ɛm/ |
Unicode codepoint | U+004D, U+006D |
Alphabetical position | 13 Numerical value: 1000 |
History | |
Development | |
Time period | ~-700 to present |
Descendants | • ₥ • ™ • ℠ • ᴟ • ꬺ • ꟽ ɯ ɰ • ꟿ • ᛗ |
Sisters | М Ӎ מ ם م ܡ מּ ﬦ Ⰿ ࠌ 𐌼 |
Other | |
Other letters commonly used with | m(x) |
Associated numbers | 1000 |
Writing direction | Left-to-Right |
ISO basic Latin alphabet |
---|
AaBbCcDdEeFfGgHhIiJjKkLlMmNnOoPpQqRrSsTtUuVvWwXxYyZz |
M, or m, is the thirteenth letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is em (pronounced /ˈɛm/), plural ems.[1]
History
Egyptian hieroglyph "n" |
Phoenician Mem |
Western Greek Mu |
Etruscan M |
Latin M | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
The letter M is derived from the Phoenician Mem, via the Greek Mu (Μ, μ). Semitic Mem is most likely derived from a "Proto-Sinaitic" (Bronze Age) adoption of the "water" ideogram in Egyptian writing. The Egyptian sign had the acrophonic value /n/, from the Egyptian word for "water", nt; the adoption as the Semitic letter for /m/ was presumably also on acrophonic grounds, from the Semitic word for "water", *mā(y)-.[2]
Use in writing systems
Orthography | Phonemes |
---|---|
Standard Chinese (Pinyin) | /m/ |
English | /m/, silent |
French | /m/ |
German | /m/ |
Portuguese | /m/, silent |
Spanish | /m/ |
Turkish | /m/ |
English
In English, ⟨m⟩ represents the voiced bilabial nasal /m/.
The Oxford English Dictionary (first edition) says that ⟨m⟩ is sometimes a vowel, in words like spasm and in the suffix -ism. In modern terminology, this is described as a syllabic consonant (IPA /m̩/).
M is the fourteenth most frequently used letter in the English language.
Other languages
The letter ⟨m⟩ represents the voiced bilabial nasal /m/ in the orthography of Latin as well as in those of many modern languages.
In Washo, lower-case ⟨m⟩ represents a voiced bilabial nasal /m/, while upper-case ⟨M⟩ represents a voiceless bilabial nasal /m̥/.
Other systems
In the International Phonetic Alphabet, ⟨m⟩ represents the voiced bilabial nasal /m/.
Other uses
- The Roman numeral M represents the number 1000, though it was not used in Roman times. There is, however, scant evidence that the letter was later introduced in the early centuries A.D. by the Romans.[3]
- Unit prefix M (mega), meaning one million times, and m (milli) meaning one-thousandth.[4][5]
- m is the standard abbreviation for metre (or meter) in the International System of Units (SI).[4] However, m is also used as an abbreviation for mile.[5]
- M is used as the unit abbreviation for molarity.[4]
- With money amounts, m or M can mean one million: For example, $5m is five million dollars.[4][5]
- M often represents male or masculine, especially in conjunction with F for female or feminine.[4][5]
- M (James Bond) is a fictional character in Ian Fleming's James Bond book and film series.
- In typography, an em dash is a punctuation symbol whose width is equal to that of a capital letter M.
Related characters
- M with diacritics: Ḿ ḿ Ṁ ṁ Ṃ ṃ M̃ m̃ ᵯ[6]
- IPA-specific symbols related to M: ɱ ɰ
- Ɱ : Capital M with hook
- Uralic Phonetic Alphabet-specific symbols related to M:[7]
- U+1D0D ᴍ LATIN LETTER SMALL CAPITAL M
- U+1D1F ᴟ LATIN SMALL LETTER SIDEWAYS TURNED M
- U+1D39 ᴹ MODIFIER LETTER CAPITAL M
- U+1D50 ᵐ MODIFIER LETTER SMALL M
- U+1D5A ᵚ MODIFIER LETTER SMALL TURNED M
- Some symbols related to M were used by the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet prior to its formal standardization in 1902:[8]
- U+2098 ₘ LATIN SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER M
- U+A7FA ꟺ LATIN LETTER SMALL CAPITAL TURNED M
- The Teuthonista phonetic transcription system uses U+AB3A ꬺ LATIN SMALL LETTER M WITH CROSSED-TAIL[9]
- Other variations used for phonetic transcription:[10] ᶆ ᶬ ᶭ
- Ɯ ɯ : Turned M
- ꟽ : Inverted M was used in ancient Roman texts to stand for mulier (woman)[11]
- ꟿ : Archaic M was used in ancient Roman texts to abbreviate the personal name 'Manius' (A regular capital M was used for the more common personal name 'Marcus')[11]
- ℳ : currency symbol for Mark
Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets
- 𐤌 : Semitic letter Mem, from which the following symbols originally derive
Ligatures and abbreviations
- ₥ : Mill (currency)
- ™ : Trademark symbol
- ℠ : Service mark symbol
Other representations
Computing
Preview | M | m | M | m | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unicode name | LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M | LATIN SMALL LETTER M | FULLWIDTH LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M | FULLWIDTH LATIN SMALL LETTER M | ||||
Encodings | decimal | hex | dec | hex | dec | hex | dec | hex |
Unicode | 77 | U+004D | 109 | U+006D | 65325 | U+FF2D | 65357 | U+FF4D |
UTF-8 | 77 | 4D | 109 | 6D | 239 188 173 | EF BC AD | 239 189 141 | EF BD 8D |
Numeric character reference | M |
M |
m |
m |
M |
M |
m |
m |
EBCDIC family | 212 | D4 | 148 | 94 | ||||
ASCII 1 | 77 | 4D | 109 | 6D |
- 1 Also for encodings based on ASCII, including the DOS, Windows, ISO-8859 and Macintosh families of encodings.
Other
NATO phonetic | Morse code |
Mike |
Signal flag | Flag semaphore | American manual alphabet (ASL fingerspelling) | British manual alphabet (BSL fingerspelling) | Braille dots-134 Unified English Braille |
References
- ^ "M" Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition (1989); Merriam-Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged (1993); "em," op. cit.
- ^ See F. Simons, "Proto-Sinaitic — Progenitor of the Alphabet" Rosetta 9 (2011): Figure Two: "Representative selection of proto-Sinaitic characters with comparison to Egyptian hieroglyphs", (p. 38) Figure Three: "Chart of all early proto-Canaanite letters with comparison to proto-Sinaitic signs" (p. 39), Figure Four: "Representative selection of later proto-Canaanite letters with comparison to early proto-Canaanite and proto-Sinaitic signs" (p. 40). See also: Goldwasser (2010), following Albright (1966), "Schematic Table of Proto-Sinaitic Characters" (fig. 1 Archived 2016-07-03 at the Wayback Machine).
- ^ Gordon, Arthur E. (1983). Illustrated Introduction to Latin Epigraphy. University of California Press. pp. 45. ISBN 9780520038981. Retrieved 3 October 2015.
roman numerals.
- ^ a b c d e "What does M stand for?". The Free Dictionary. Archived from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
- ^ a b c d "M definition and meaning". Collins English Dictionary. Archived from the original on 27 February 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021.
- ^ Constable, Peter (2003-09-30). "L2/03-174R2: Proposal to Encode Phonetic Symbols with Middle Tilde in the UCS" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-10-11. Retrieved 2018-03-24.
- ^ Everson, Michael; et al. (2002-03-20). "L2/02-141: Uralic Phonetic Alphabet characters for the UCS" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-02-19. Retrieved 2018-03-24.
- ^ Ruppel, Klaas; Aalto, Tero; Everson, Michael (2009-01-27). "L2/09-028: Proposal to encode additional characters for the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-10-11. Retrieved 2018-03-24.
- ^ Everson, Michael; Dicklberger, Alois; Pentzlin, Karl; Wandl-Vogt, Eveline (2011-06-02). "L2/11-202: Revised proposal to encode "Teuthonista" phonetic characters in the UCS" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-10-11. Retrieved 2018-03-24.
- ^ Constable, Peter (2004-04-19). "L2/04-132 Proposal to add additional phonetic characters to the UCS" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-10-11. Retrieved 2018-03-24.
- ^ a b Perry, David J. (2006-08-01). "L2/06-269: Proposal to Add Additional Ancient Roman Characters to UCS" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-06-14. Retrieved 2018-03-24.