Rashtrakutas

Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಕೂಟ / राष्ट्रकूट
753–982
Extent of Rashtrakuta Empire, 800 CE, 915 CE
Status	Empire (Subordinate to Badami Chalukyas until 753)
Capital	Manyakheta
Common languages	Kannada, Sanskrit
Religion	Hindu, Jain
Government	Monarchy
King
• 735 - 756	Dantidurga
• 973 – 982	Indra IV
History
• Earliest Rashtrakuta records	753
• Established	753
• Disestablished	982
Preceded by Succeeded by Chalukyas Western Chalukyas

The Rashtrakuta Dynasty (Sanskrit:राष्ट्रकूट, Kannada: ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಕೂಟ) was a royal Indian dynasty ruling large parts of southern, central and northern India between the sixth and the thirteenth centuries. During this period they ruled as several closely related, but individual families. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a seventh century copper plate grant that attests to their rule from Manpur in the Malwa region of modern Madhya Pradesh. Other ruling Rashtrakuta clans from the same period were the kings of Achalapur which is modern Elichpur in Maharashtra and the rulers of Kannauj. Several controversies exist regarding the origin of these early Rashtrakutas, their native home and their language.

The clan that ruled from Elichpur was a feudatory of the Badami Chalukyas and during the rule of Dantidurga, it overthrew Chalukya Kirtivarman II and went on to build an impressive empire with the Gulbarga region in modern Karnataka as its base. The Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, as the clan came to be known, came to power in South India in 753. At the same time the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and the Prathihara dynasty of Gujarat were on the rise in eastern and northwestern India respectively.

This period saw a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains, each of these three empires annexing the seat of power at Kannauj for short periods of time. At their peak the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta ruled a vast empire stretching from the Ganga River and Yamuna River doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time of political expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary contributions. The early kings of this dynasty were Hindu but the later kings were strongly influenced by Jainism.

During their rule, Jain mathematicians and scholars contributed important works in Kannada and Sanskrit. Amoghavarsha I was the most famous king of this dynasty and wrote Kavirajamarga, a landmark literary work in the Kannada language. Architecture reached a pinnacle in the dravidian style, the finest examples of which are seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora and the sculptures of Elephanta Caves in modern Maharashtra as well as in the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka, all of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

History

Main articles: Origin of Rashtrakuta Dynasty and The great Karnataka Expansion

Shiva sculpture at Ellora

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Three-storied monolithic Jain cave temple at Ellora

Core territory of Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta

The origin of Rashtrakuta dynasty has been a controversial topic with such unresolved issues as the origins of the earliest ancestors of the Rashtrakutas during the time of Emperor Ashoka in the second century BCE, the connection between the several different Rashtrakuta dynasties that ruled small kingdoms in northern and central India and the Deccan between the sixth and seventh centuries, and the relationship of these medieval Rashtrakutas to the most famous dynasty, the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (present day Malkhed in the Gulbarga district, Karnataka state), who ruled between the eighth and tenth centuries.

The dynasty's history has been studied through examination of numerous sources, including medieval inscriptions found throughout the Deccan, ancient literature in the Pali language, contemporaneous Kannada literature such as Kavirajamarga (850) and Vikramarjuna Vijaya (941), Sanskrit writings by scholars including Somadeva, Rajashekara, Gunabhadra, Jinasena, and the notes of the Arab travellers Suleiman, Ibn Haukal, Al Masudi, Al Istakhri. Theories about the dynastic lineage (Surya Vamsa—Solar line and Chandra Vamsa—Lunar line), the native region and the ancestral home have been proposed based on information gleaned from inscriptions, royal emblems, the ancient clan names as "Rashtrika", epithets (Ratta, Rashtrakuta, Lattalura Puravaradhiswara), the names of dynasty princes and princesses, as well as clues from relics such as coins. Scholars claim that the early Rashtrakutas belonged to one of many ethnic groups, the Rajputs, the Kannadiga, Reddi, the Maratha, or the Punjabi.

Whatever the lineage of the early Rashtrakutas, the kings of the imperial dynasty in the eighth to tenth century made the Kannada language as important as Sanskrit. Rashtrakuta inscriptions are only in the two languages of Kannada and Sanskrit and they encouraged literature in both languages. The earliest existing Kannada literary writings are credited to their court poets and royalty. They inherited the Dravidian style of architecture, the best examples of which are scattered over present day Maharashtra and northern Karnataka. Though these Rashtrakutas were Kannadigas, they may have been conversant in a northern Deccan language as well.

The heart of the Rashtrakutas empire included nearly all of Karnataka, Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh which it ruled for over two centuries. Dantidurga founded the kingdom in 753 by overthrowing his overlords, the Badami Chalukyas. The Samangadh copper plate grant (753) confirms that the feudatory Dantidurga defeated the Vallabha Kirtivarman II of Badami and, with a small army, humbled the great Karnatik army (referring to the army of the Badami Chalukyas) which had earlier won victories over the kings of Kanchi, Kerela, Chola, Pandya, as well as King Harsha of Kannauj and Vajrata. As a Chalukya feudatory, Dantidurga had possibly ruled from modern Elichpur (ancient Achalapura in Berar), Amravathi District in modern Maharashtra. With his family based in modern Gulbarga, Dantidurga took control of the northern areas of the Chalukya empire and helped his father-in-law, the Pallava King Nandivarman, to regain Kanchi from the Chalukyas. He later defeated the rulers of Lata (Gujarat) and Malwa.

The consolidation of the kingdom started with Krishna I who brought major portions of present day Karnataka and Konkan under control. During the rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha, who took control in 780 after his elder brother Govinda II abdicated the throne peacefully, the kingdom expanded into an empire that encompassed all of the territory between the Kaveri River and Central India. He led successful expeditions to Kannauj, the seat of northern Indian power where he defeated the Gurjara Pratiharas and the Palas of Bengal, gaining him fame and vast booty but not long term land expansion. According to some historians, the Rashtrakutas became a pan-India power during his rule. From the Jetvai grant it is known that the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and the Gangas of Talakad were submissive.

The ascent of Dhruva Dharavarsha's third son, Govinda III, to the throne heralded an era of success like never before. There is uncertainty about the location of the early capital of the Rashtrakutas at this time. After dealing effectively with a family feud, Govinda III expanded the empire further. During his rule there was a three way conflict between the Rashtrakutas, the Palas and the Pratiharas for control over the Gangetic plains. Having defeated the Pratihara King Nagabhatta II and the Pala King Dharmapala, the Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank from the icy waters of the Himalayan streams and his war elephants tasted the sacred waters of Ganga. His military exploits have been compared to those of Alexander the Great and Pandava Arjuna of Mahabharata. Having conquered Kanauj, he travelled south, took firm hold over Gujarath, Kosala (Kaushal), Gangavadi, humbled the Pallavas of Kanchi, installed a ruler of his choice in Vengi and received two statues as an act of submission from the king of Ceylon (Sri Lanka). The Cholas, the Pandyas and the Kerelas all paid him tribute. It is said that the drums of the Deccan were heard from the Himalayanan caves to the shores of the Malabar. The Rashtrakutas empire now spread over the areas from Cape Comorin to Kannauj and from Banaras to Broach (Bharuch).

His successor, Amoghavarsha I, made Manyakheta his capital and ruled a large empire. Manyakheta remained their regal capital till the end of the empire. He came to the throne in 814 but it was not until 821 that he had suppressed revolts from feudatories and ministers. He made peace with the Gangas by giving his two daughters in marriage, defeated the invading Eastern Chalukyas at Vingavalli and assumed the title Viranarayana. His rule was not as flamboyant militarily at that of Govinda III as he preferred to maintain friendly relations with his neighbours, the Gangas, the Eastern Chalukyas and the Pallavas with whom he cultivated marital ties. However his era was a successful one for the arts, literature and religion. Widely seen as the most famous of the Rashtrakuta kings, Amoghavarsha I was an accomplished scholar in Kannada and Sanskrit. His Kavirajamarga is considered an important landmark in Kannada poetics and Prashnottara Ratnamalika in Sanskrit is a writing of high merit and was later translated into the Tibetan language. In Kavirajamarga he wrote that the area between Kaveri River and Godavari River was known as "Kannada country" indicating the language was popular farther north then the present day geographic boundaries. Many noted Jain scholars, writing in Kannada and Sanskrit, adorned his court. Because of his religious temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace loving nature, he has been compared to emperor Ashoka and called "Ashoka of the South". The Sanskrit writing on medicine Kalyanakaraka by a court poet, Ugraditya, relates that the king requested the poet give the court a discourse on the evils of a non-vegetarian diet and the need to avoid such a diet to treat illnesses.

During the rule of Krishna II, the empire had to face a revolt from the Eastern Chalukyas and its size decreased to most of the Western Deccan and Gujarat. Krishna II ended the independent status of the Gujarat branch and brought it under direct control from Manyakheta. Indra III recovered the dynasty's fortunes in central India by defeating the Paramara and then invaded the doab region of the Ganges and Jamuna. He also defeated the dynasty's traditional enemies, the Pratiharas and the Palas, while maintaining his influence over Vengi. The effect of his victories in Kanauj lasted only a few years as confirmed by the 930 copper plate inscription of King Govinda IV. After a succession of weak kings during whose reigns the empire lost control of territories in the north and east, Krishna III also known as Kannara and the last great king, once again consolidated the empire so that it stretched from the Narmada River to Kaveri River and included the northern Tamil country (Tondaimandalam) while levying tribute on the king of Ceylon. A copper grant of 993 issued by the Shilahara king of Thana claims the Rashtrakuta control extended from the Himalayas in the north to Ceylon in the south and from the eastern sea to the western seas. The grant states that when King Krishna III mobilised his armies, the kings of Chola, Bengal, Kannauj, Andhra and Pandya regions used to quiver.

The final decline was sudden as Tailapa II, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruling from Tardavadi province in modern Bijapur district, declared himself independent by taking advantage of the defeat of the successors of Krishna III at the hands of the Paramara who plundered Manyakheta. Indra IV, the last king committed Sallekhana (fasting unto death practised by Jain monks) at Shravanabelagola. However by this time, several branches of Rashtrakutas had established themselves in North India.

The rise of Rashtrakuts of Manyakheta had a great impact even in North India. Sulaiman (851), Al Masudi (944) and Ibn Khurdadba (912) wrote that their empire was the largest in contemporary India and Sulaiman further called it one among the four great contemporary empires of the world. Some historians have called these times an "Age of Imperial Kannauj". However since the Rashtrakutas successfully captured Kannauj, levied tribute on its rulers and posed as masters of North India, the era could be called the "Age of Imperial Karnataka". During their political expansion into central and northern India in the eighth to tenth centuries, the Rashtrakutas created several related kingdoms that either ruled during the reign of the parent empire or for centuries after the its fall. Well known among them were the Rashtrakutas of Gujarat (757-888), the Rattas of Saundatti (875-1230) in modern Karnataka, the Gahadavalas of Kannauj (1068-1223), the Rashtrakutas of Rajasthan (known as Rajputana) and ruling from Hastikundi or Hathundi (893-996), Dahal (near Jabalpur), Mandore (near Jodhpur), the Rathores of Dhanop, Rashtraudha dynasty of Mayuragiri in modern Maharashtra and Rashtrakutas of Kannauj.

Administration

Inscriptions and other records show the Rashtrakutas followed the practice of selecting the crown prince based on heredity. The crown did not always pass on to the eldest son. Abilities were more important than age and chronology of birth as when Dhruva Dharavarsha chose to crown his third son, Govinda III. The most important position under the king was the Chief Minister (Mahasandhivigrahi) whose position came with the insignia commensurate with his position namely, a flag, a conch, a fan, a white umbrella, a large drum and five musical instruments called Panchamahashabdas. Under him was the commander (Dandanayaka), the foreign minister (Mahakshapataladhikrita) and a prime minister (Mahamatya or Purnamathya), all of whom were usually associated with one of the feudatory kings and must have had a position in government equivalent to a premier. A Mahasamantha was a feudatory or higher ranking regal officer. All cabinet ministers were well versed in political science (Rajneeti) and possessed military training. There were cases where woman took care of significant areas as when Revakanimaddi, daughter of Amoghavarsha I, administered Edathore Vishaya.

The kingdom was divided into Mandala or Rashtras (Province). The Rashtra was ruled by Rashtrapathi who on occasion was the emperor himself. Amoghavarsha's empire had sixteen Rashtras. Under a Rashtra was a Vishaya (district) overseen by a Vishayapathi and under that was a Grama (taluk) overseen by Gramakuta. Trusted ministers sometimes ruled more than a Rashtra. For example, Bankesha, a commander of Amoghavarsha I headed Banavasi-12000, Belvola-300, Puligere-300, Kunduru-500 and Kundarge-70, the suffix designating the number of villages in that territory. Below the Vishaya was Nadu looked after by Nadugowda or Nadugavunda and sometimes there were two such officials, one appointed by heredity and another centrally. The lowest division was a village administered by a Gramapathi or Prabhu Gavunda. Taxes called Udranga, Uparika, Bhagakara and Bhuthotpatta Prathyaya were exacted on land and land revenue.

The Rashtrakuta army consisted of a large infantry, numerous horseman, and many elephants. A standing army was always ready for war in a cantonment (Sthirabhuta Kataka) in the regal capital Manyakheta. Large armies were also maintained by the feudatory kings who were expected to contribute to the defense of the empire in case of war. Chieftains and all the officials also served as commanders whose posting was transferable if the need arose.

The Rashtrakutas issued coins (minted in an Akkashale) such as Suvarna, Drammas in silver and gold weighing 65 grains, Kalanju weighing 48 grains, Gadyanaka weighing 96 grains, Kasu weighing 15 grains, Manjati with 2 1/2 grains and Akkam of 1 1/4 grain.

Economy

See also: Economy of Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta

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Roof sculpture, Panchakuta Basadi, Kambadahalli

The Rashtrakuta economy was sustained by its natural and agricultural produce, its manufacturing revenues and moneys gained from its conquests. Cotton was the chief crop of the regions of southern Gujarat, Khandesh and Berar. Minnagar, Gujarat, Ujjain, Paithan and Tagara were important centres of textile industry. Muslin cloth were manufactured in Paithan and Warangal. The cotton yarn and cloth was exported from Bharoch. White calicos were manufactured in Burhanpur and Berar and exported to Persia, Turkey, Polland, Arabia and Cairo. The Konkan region, ruled by the feudatory Silharas, produced large quantities of betel leaves, coconut and rice while the lush forests of Mysore, ruled by the feudatory Gangas, produced such woods as sandal, timber, teak and ebony. Incense and perfumes were exported from the ports of Thana and Saimur. The Rashtrakuta empire controlled most of the western sea board of the subcontinent which facilitated its maritime trade.

The deccan soil, though not as fertile as that of the Gangetic plains, was rich in minerals. The copper mines of Cudappah, Bellary, Chanda, Buldhana, Narsingpur, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Dharwar were an important source of income and played an important role in the economy. Diamonds were mined in Cudappah, Bellary, Kurnool and Golconda; the capital Manyakheta and Devagiri were important diamond and jewellery trading centres. The leather industry and tanning flourished in Gujarat and some regions of northern Maharashtra. Mysore with its vast elephant herds was important for the ivory industry. The Gujarat branch of the empire earned a significant income from the port of Bharoch, one of the most prominent ports in the world at that time. The empire's chief exports were cotton yarn, cotton cloth, muslins, hides, mats, indigo, incense, perfumes, betel nuts, coconuts, sandal, teak, timber, sesame oil and ivory. Its major imports were pearls, gold, dates from Arabia, slaves, Italian wines, tin, lead, topaz, storax, sweet clover, flint glass, antimony, gold and silver coins, singing boys and girls (for the entertainment of the royalty) from other lands. Trading in horses was an important and profitable business, monopolised the Arabs and some local merchants.

Oxen and Bullock carts were used for business and leisure travel within the kingdom. While superior quality horses served the purpose for army cavalry, inferior horses were used as pack animals for moving commodities, especially in the hilly regions where cattle driven carts were too slow. Buying and selling land was not just the business of the two concerned parties but needed the consent of village elders and Mahajans (Brahmins). Artists and craftsman operated as corporations (guilds) rather than as individual busineses. Inscriptions mention guilds of weavers, oilmen, artisans, basket and mat makers and fruit sellers. A Saundatti inscription refers to an assemblage of all the people of a district headed by the guilds of the region. Some guilds were considered superior to others, just as some corporations were, and received royal charters determining their powers and privileges. The Dambal inscription mentions its guild as the "lord of Aihole" and that its members owned their own royal umbrellas. Inscriptions suggest these guilds had their own militia to protect goods in transit and, like village assemblies, they operated banks that lent money to traders and businesses.

Information on the kingdom's revenue system is now available from its copper plate grants, contemporaneous writings and inscriptions from neighbouring kingdoms. The accounts of Muslim writers of the time also provide insight into details. The government's income came from five principle sources: regular taxes, occasional taxes, fines, income taxes, miscellaneous taxes and tributes from feudatories. An emergency tax was also imposed occasionally. Income tax included taxes on crown land, wasteland, specific types of trees considered valuable to economy, mines, salt, treasures unearthed by prospectors, and estates and moneys of persons who died without a heir. Additionally, customary presents were give to the king or royal officers on such festive occasions of as marriage or the birth of a son.

The land owner or tenant payed a variety of taxes, including land taxes, produce taxes and payment of the overhead for maintenance of the Gavunda (village head). Land taxes were varied, based on type of land, its produce and situation. A Banavasi inscription of 941 mentions reassessment of land tax due to the drying up of an old irrigation canal in the region. Various tax levels were determined ranging from 8% to 16%. The king determined the tax levels based on need and circumstances in the kingdom while ensuring that an undue burden was not placed on the peasants. A portion of all taxes earned by the government (usually 15%) was returned to the villages for maintenance. The Rashtrakuta empire was frequently at war with the Palas and Gurjaras, a political situation that required significant expenditure to upgrade and maintain the army. The land tax therefore man have been as high as 20%. Taxes on lands and property gifted to war heroes were lightly taxed while other lands were taxed in three installments. The Ukkal inscription records that when land owners defaulted on taxes for three years in a row under normal circumstances, the lands were seized and sold by the village community. In most of the kingdom, land taxes were paid in goods and services and rarely was cash accepted.

The Rashtrakuta government levied a shipping tax of one golden Gadyana on all foreign vessels embarking to any other ports and a fee of one silver Ctharna on vessels travelling locally. Taxes were levied on all types of artisans such as potters, sheep herders, weavers, oilmen, shopkeepers, stall owners, brewers and gardeners. Taxes on perishable items such as fish, meat, honey, medicine, fruits and essentials like fuel was as high as 16%. Taxes on salt and minerals were mandatory although the empire did not claim sole ownership of mines, implying that private mineral prospecting and the quarrying business may have been active. Treasures, even when discovered on private land, were included as taxable earnings as were the incomes and properties of persons who died without heirs. If there were no survivors in the family, the state claimed all the properties.

Under miscellaneous taxes were ferry and house taxes. Only Brahmins and their temple institutions were taxed at a lower rate. Emergency taxes were applicable when the kingdom was under duress, such as when it faced natural calamities, or was preparing for war or overcoming war's ravages. An emergency tax was levied on villages only during encampment of the army or the police (Bhafas) on a march. Under such circumstances, the army (Chata) was allowed limited access to the village or township and that was only under special circumstances which ensured daily life in the communities continued unhindered.

Culture

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Kailasanatha Temple

Religion

The concept of following one religious tradition exclusively was rare in medieval India and the Rashtrakutas supported the various popular religions in the traditional spirit of religious tolerance. Various arguments have been offered by scholars as to which specific religion the Rashtrakutas favored, basing their evidence on inscriptions, coins and contemporary literature. Some feel the Rashtrakutas were inclined towards Jainism since many of the scholars who flourished in their courts and wrote in Sanskrit, Kannada, Apabhramsha and Prakrit were Jains. Well known monuments built in places such as Lokapura in Bagalkot district and those built by their loyal feudatory, the Western Ganga Dynasty, at Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli are Jain monuments. Scholars have suggested that Jainism was a principal religion in the very heart of the empire, modern Karnataka, accounting for a more than 30% of the population and dominating the cultural landscape of the region. King Amoghavarsha I was a disciple of Jinasena and wrote in his religious writing, Prashnottara Ratnamalika, "having bowed to Varaddhamana (Mahavira), I write Prashnottara Ratnamalika". The mathematician Mahaviracharya wrote in his Ganita Sarasangraha, "The subjects under Amoghavarsha are happy and the land yields plenty of grain. May the kingdom of King Nripatunga Amoghavarsha, follower of Jainism ever increase far and wide." It is suggested that Amoghavarsha may have taken up Jainsim in his old age.

However, the proponderance of evidence shows the Rashtrakuta kings were ardent Hindus, followers of the Shaiva, Vaishnava and Shakta faiths. Almost all of their inscriptions begin with an invocation of Vishnu or Shiva. From the Sanjan inscriptions it is known that King Amoghavarsha I sacrificed a finger from his left hand at the Mahalakshmi temple at Kolhapur to avert a calamity in his kingdom. King Dantidurga performed the Hiranyagarbha (horse sacrifice) and the Sanjan and Cambay plates of King Govinda IV mention Brahmins performing rituals such as Rajasuya, Vajapeya and Agnishtoma. An early copper plate grant of King Dantidurga (753) shows an image of Lord Shiva and the coins of his successor, King Krishna I (768), bears the legend Parama Maheshwara (another name for Shiva). Their titles such as Veeranarayana showed their Vaishnava leanings. Their flag had the sign of the Ganga and Jamuna rivers, perhaps copied from the Badami Chalukyas. The famous Kailasnatha temple at Ellora and other rock cut caves attributed to them show that the Vedic religion was flourishing. Their family deity was a Goddess by name Latana (also known as Rashtrashyena , Manasa Vindyavasini) who took the form of a falcon to save the kingdom. There are examples of secular temples as well, such as the one at Salotgi, meant for followers of Shiva and Vishnu and the temple at Kargudri meant for worshipers of Shankara, Vishnu and Bhaskara (Surya, the sun God).

In short, the Rashtrakuta rule was tolerant to multiple popular religions, Jainism, Vaishnavaism and Shaivism. Buddhism too found support and was popular in places such as Dambal and Balligavi, although it had declined significantly by this time. The decline of Buddhism in South India began in the 8th century with the spread of Adi Shankara's Advaita philosophy. Islamic contact with South India began as early as the 7th century, a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and Arab lands. Jumma Masjids existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the 10th century and many Muslims lived and mosques flourished on the coasts, specifically in towns such as Kayalpattanam and Nagore. Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known as Mappillas (Moplahs) and were actively involved in horse trading and manning shipping fleets.

Society

See also: Society of Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta

Information regarding the caste system, social life, and life style during the Rashtrakuta times comes from inscriptions and the notes of Greek and Arab travellers to India. These sources provide evidence that the Hindu caste system was widespread. Chronicles mention more castes than the four commonly known castes in the Hindu social system, some as many as seven castes. One traveller's account mentions sixteen castes including the four basic castes of Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Chandalas. The Zakaya or Lahud caste consisted of communities specialising in dance and acrobatics. People in the professions of sailing, hunting, weaving, cobblery, basket making and fishing belonged to specific castes or subcastes. The Antyajas caste provided many menial services to the wealthy. Brahmins enjoyed the highest status in Rashtrakuta society; only those Kshatriyas in the Sat-Kshatriya sub-caste (noble Kshatriyas) were higher in status.

The careers of Brahmins usually related to education, the judiciary, astrology, mathematics, poetry and philosophy It was also common for Brahmins to occupy or the occupation of hereditary administrative posts as well. Also Brahmins increasingly practiced professions normally considered non-Brahminical professions (agriculture, trade in Betel nuts and martial posts) were Brahmins. The only caste of people considered above the Brahmins were those Kshatriyas that belonged to royal and noble families. Capital punishment, although common, was not given to these royal Kshatriya sub-castes or to Brahmins found guilty of heinous crimes as the killing of a Brahmin in medieval Hindu India was itself considered a heinous crime. As an alternate punishment to enforce the law a Brahmin's right hand and left foot was severed, leaving that person disabled.

By the ninth century, kings from all the four castes had at one time or another occupied the highest seat in the monarchical system in Hindu India. Admitting Kshatriyas to Vedic schools along with Brahmins was common, but the children of the Vaishya and Shudra castes were not allowed. Jains took up martial careers and Landownership by people of all castes is recorded in inscriptions Intercaste marriages were uncommon except between highly placed Kshatriya girls and Brahmin boys as there are few records of intercaste marriages, but by the end of the Rashtrakuta rule intercaste marriages involving a Brahmin bride or groom had become rare while remaining relatively frequent among other castes. Intercaste functions were unusual as dining together between people of various castes was avoided.

Joint families were the norm but legal separations between brothers and even father and son have been recorded in inscriptions. Women and daughters had rights over property and land as there are inscriptions recording the sale of land by women. Intercaste marriages were uncommon except between highly placed Kshatriya girls and Brahmin boys. The arranged marriage system followed a strict policy of early marriage for women. Among Brahmins, boys married at or below 16 years of age and the brides chosen for them were 12 or younger. This age policy was not strictly followed by other castes. Inscriptions record many instances of marriage between a man and his maternal cousin (daughter of a maternal uncle), prince Jagattunga, son of Krishna II being an example of this. Voluntary Sati was practiced but the few examples noted in inscriptions were mostly in the royal families. The system of shaving the heads of widows was infrequent as epigraphs note that widows were allowed to grow their hair but decorating it was discouraged. The remarriage of a widow was rare among the upper castes but common among the lower castes.

In the general population men wore two simple pieces of cloth, a loose garment on top and a garment worn like a dhoti for the lower part of the body. Only kings could wear turbans, a practice that spread to the masses much later. Dancing was popular a entertainment and inscriptions speak of royal women being charmed by dancers, both male and female, in the king's palace. Devadasis were often present in temples. Other recreational activities included attending animal fights of the same or different species. An Atkur hero stone (virgal) has been found made for the favourite hound of the feudatory Western Ganga King Butuga II that died fighting a wild boar in a sport. There are records of game preserves for hunting by royalty. Astronomy and astrology were well developed as subjects of study, and there were many superstitious beliefs such as catching a snake alive proved a woman's chastity. Old persons suffering from incurable diseases preferred to end their lives by drowning in the sacred waters of a pilgrim site or by a ritual burning.

Literature

See also: Rashtrakuta literature

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Roof sculpture, Panchakuta Basadi, Kambadahalli

The rule of the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta is an important period in the history of South Indian literature. Coming in at the end of the classical Prakrit and Sanskrit era, court poets and royalty created eminent works in Kannada and Sanskrit that spanned such literary forms as prose, poetry, rhetoric, Hindu epics and life history of Jain tirthankaras. Famous scholars wrote on secular subjects such as mathematics. Kannada became more prominent as a literary language during the Rashtrakuta rule with its script and literature showing remarkable growth, dignity and productivity.

Kavirajamarga (850) by King Amoghavarsha I is the earliest extant book on rhetoric and poetics but it is evident from this book that several styles of Kannada literature and poetry had already existed in previous centuries. Kavirajamarga is a guide to poets (Kavishiksha) that aims to standardize these various styles. The book references early Kannada writers such as the 6th century King Durvinita of Western Ganga Dynasty, a writer of early Kannada prose.

Adikavi Pampa, widely regarded as one of the greatest Kannada writers, became famous for Adipurana (941). Written in champu (mixed prose-verse style) style, it is the life history of the first Jain thirtankara Rishabhadeva. Pampa's other notable work was Vikramarjuna Vijaya (941), the author's version of the Hindu epic, Mahabharata, with Arjuna as the hero. Also called Pampa Bharata, it praises the writer's patron, King Chalukya Arikeseri of Vemulavada (a Rashtrakuta feudatory), comparing the king's virtues favorably to those of Arjuna. Pampa demonstrates such a command of classical Kannada that scholars over the centuries have written many interpretations of his work.

Another great writer in Kannada was Sri Ponna, patronised by King Krishna III and famed for his description of the life of the 16th Jain tirthankara Shantinatha entitled Santipurana. He earned the title Ubhaya Kavichakravathi (supreme poet in two languages) for his command over both Kannada and Sanskrit. His other writings in Kannada were Bhuvanaika-karamabhyudaya, Jinaksaramale and Gatapratiagata. Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna (court poet of Western Chalukya King Tailapa II) are called the "three gems" of Kannada literature.

Prose works in Sanskrit was prolific during this era as well. Important mathematical theories and axioms were postulated by Mahaviracharya, a native of Gulbarga, who belonged to the Karnataka mathematical tradition and was patronised by King Amoghavarsha I. His greatest contribution was Ganitasarasangraha, a writing in 9 chapters. Somadevasuri of 950 wrote in the court of Arikesari II, a feudatory of Rashtrakuta Krishna III in Vemulavada. He was the author of Yasastilaka champu, Nitivakyamrita and other writings. The main aim of the champu writing was to propagate Jain tenets and ethics. The second writing reviews the subject matter of Arthasastra from the standpoint of Jain morals in a clear and pithy manner.

Trivikrama was a noted scholar in the court of King Indra III. His classics were Nalachampu (915), the earliest in champu style in Sanskrit, Damayanti Katha, Madalasachampu and Begumra plates. Legend has it that Goddess Saraswati helped him in his effort to compete with a rival in the kings court. Jinesena was the spiritual preceptor and guru of Amoghavarsha I. A theologian, his contributions are Dhavala and Jayadhavala (written with another theologian Virasena). These writings are named after their patron king who was also called Athishayadhavala. Other contributions from Jinasena were Adipurana later completed by his disciple Gunabhadra, Harivamsha and Parshvabhyudaya.

Architecture

View of Kailasanath Temple at Ellora

Top view of Kailasanath Temple at Ellora

The Rashtrakutas contributed much to the architectural heritage of the Deccan. The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta, located in present day Maharashtra. The Ellora site was originally part of a complex of 34 Buddhist caves probably created in the first half of the sixth century in rocky areas also occupied by Jains monks whose structural details show Pandyan influence. Cave temples occupied by Hindus only became feasible later.

The Rashtrakutas renovated these Buddhist caves and re-dedicated the rock-cut shrines. Amoghavarsha I espoused Jainism and there are five Jain cave temples at Ellora. The most extensive and sumptuous of the Rashtrakutas work at Ellora is their creation of the monolithic Kailasanatha temple, a splendid achievement confirming the "Balhara" status as "one among the four principle Kings of the world". The walls of the temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindu mythology including Ravana, Shiva and Parvathi while the ceilings have paintings.

The Kailasanath Temple project was commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule had spread into South India from the Deccan. The architectural style used was dravidian. It does not contain any of the Shikharas common to the Nagara style and was built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka. The achievement at the Kailasanath temple is considered an architectural consummation of the monolithic rock-cut temple and deserves be considered one of the wonders of the world. As an accomplishment of art, the Kailasnatha temple is considered an unrivalled work of rock architecture, a monument that has always excited and astonished travellers.

While some scholars claim the architecture at Elephanta is attributable to the Kalachuri, others confirm that it was built by the Rashtrakutas. It has been pointed out that some of the sculptures like Nataraja and Sadashiva excel even the Ellora sculptures. Other famous sculptures are Ardhanarishvara and Maheshamurthy. The later, a three faced bust of Lord Shiva, is 25 feet tall and considered one of the finest pieces of sculpture in India. About this sculpture it is said that few works of art depicting divinity is as balanced in the world of sculpture. Other famous rock cut temples in the Maharashtra region are the Dhumer Lena and Dashvatara cave temples in Ellora (famous for its sculptures of Vishnu and Shivaleela) and the Jogeshvari temple near Mumbai.

In Karnataka their most famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal, both of which are UNSECO World Heritage sites. Other well known temples are the Parameshwara temple at Konnur, Brahmadeva temple at Savadi, the Settavva, Kontigudi II, Jadaragudi and Ambigeragudi temples at Aihole being proposed for UNESCO World Heritage Site status, Mallikarjuna temple at Ron, Andhakeshwara temple at Huli, Someshwara temple at Sogal, Jain temples at Lokapura, Navalinga temple at Kukanur, Kumaraswamy temple at Sandur, many temples at Shirival in Gulbarga and the Trikunteshwara temple at Gadag which was later expanded by Kalyani Chalukyas. Many of these temples have been studied by historians and some have the stellar (multigonal) plan later to be used profusely by the Hoysalas of Belur and Halebidu. One of the richest traditions in Indian architecture took shape in the Deccan during this time and one writer calls it Karnata Dravida style as opposed to traditional Dravida style.

Language

With the passing of the Gupta Dynasty in northern India in the early sixth century, major changes began taking place south of the Vindyas in the deccan and in the southern regions of India. These changes were not merely political but also linguistic and cultural. The courts of peninsular India outside of Tamilakam reflected the interface between the increasingly assertive local language of Kannada and the expanding Sanskritic culture. Inscriptions in these regions attest to the use of Kannada as the administration language in addition to Sanskrit. Literature in the local language formed the desi (popular) literature while Sanskrit was called marga (mainstream). Education in schools and higher places of learning (ghatikas) was taught in Sanskrit and used by learned Brahmins, while the local language was increasingly used for the expression of devotional closeness to the worshipper's personal deity and in government archives for recording locations relating to grants of land.. Kannada received patronage from rich and literate Jains and this eventually culminated in its usage in the devotional movements of later centuries.

Contemporaneous literature and inscriptions show that Kannada was not only popular in the modern Karnataka region but had spread further north into present day southern Maharashtra. This linguistic change had occurred in the northern deccan by the eighth century. In fact the work on poetics, Kavirajamarga, refers to the entire region between Kaveri River and Godavari River as "Kannada country". Higher education in Sanskrit included such subjects as Veda, Vyakarana (grammar), Jyotisha (astronomy and astrology ), Sahitya (literature), Mimansa (Exegesis), Dharmashastra (law), Puranas (ritual), Nyaya (logic). A close examination of inscriptions from this period reveals that the Kavya (classical) style of writing was popular and the awareness of the merits and defects in these inscriptions by the archivists indicates that even they , though mediocre poets, had studied standard classical literature in Sanskrit. An inscription in Kannada of King Krishna III written in a poetic Kanda metre has been found as far away as Jabalpur in modern Madhya Pradesh. Kavirajamarga, a work on poetics in Kannada by Amoghavarsha I shows that the study of poetry was popular in the deccan during this time. Trivikrama's Sanskrit writing Nalachampu is perhaps the earliest in the champu style from the deccan.

References

• Altekar, Anant Sadashiv (1934) [1934]. The Rashtrakutas And Their Times; being a political, administrative, religious, social, economic and literary history of the Deccan during C. 750 A.D. to C. 1000 A.D. Poona: Oriental Book Agency. OCLC 3793499.
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• Kamat, Jyotsna. "Kannada Literature under the Rashtrakutas". The Rashtrakutas. Retrieved 2007-02-03.
• Kamat, Jyotsna. "The Rashtrakutas". Dynasties of the Deccan. Retrieved 2007-02-03.
• Kamat, Jyotsna. "Sanskrit Literature under the Rashtrakutas". The Rashtrakutas. Retrieved 2007-02-03.
• Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001) [1980]. A concise history of Karnataka : from pre-historic times to the present. Bangalore: Jupiter books. OCLC 7796041. LCCN 80-9 – 0.
• Keay, John (2000) [2000]. India: A History. New York: Grove Publications. ISBN ISBN 0-8021-3797-0. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)

• Majumdar, R.C. (1966) [1966]. The Struggle for Empire. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
• Narasimhacharya, R (1988) [1988]. History of Kannada Literature. New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services. ISBN ISBN 81-206-0303-6. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
• Reu, Pandit Bisheshwar Nath (1997) [1933]. History of the Rashtrakutas (Rathodas). Jaipur: Publication Scheme. ISBN 81-86782-12-5.
• Sastri, Nilakanta K.A. (2002) [1955]. A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. New Delhi: Indian Branch, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-560686-8.
• Sastri & Rao, Shama & Lakshminarayan. "South Indian Inscriptions-Miscellaneous Inscriptions in Kannada". Rashtrakutas. Retrieved 2007-02-03.
• Thapar, Romila (2003) [2003]. Penguin History of Early India: From origins to AD 1300. New Delhi: Penguin. ISBN ISBN 0-14-302989-4. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
• Vaidya, C.V. History of Mediaeval Hindu India (Being a History of India from 600 to 1200 A.D.). Poona: Oriental Book Supply Agency. OCLC 6814734.

See also

• Origin of Rashtrakutas
• Rashtrakuta literature
• Chalukya dynasty
• Ellora Caves

External links

• List of rulers of Karnataka
• Archaeological Survey of India