Kannada literature

The earliest full length Kannada inscription- The Halmidi inscription at Halmidi village dated 450 CE

Kannada literature (Kannada:ಕನ್ನಡ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯ) refers to the body of literature written in the Kannada language, a language spoken mainly in the Indian state of Karnataka. The Kannada script is the writing system used in Kannada literature. It boasts of a rich and ancient body of literature spanning fifteen hundred years. Kannada literature consists of writings from the medieval socio-religious developments of Jainism, Virashaivism and Vaishnavism, writings on secular subjects, and modern literature.

Evidence from edicts of Ashoka the Great discovered in Karnataka suggests that the Kannada script and its literature may have been derived from Buddhist literature and philosophy, prompting some historians to claim that a Buddhist era (pre-4th century) in Kannada literature may have existed prior to the Jain period (4th to 12th century). The oldest surviving literary work, Kavirajamarga (ಕವಿರಾಜಮಾರ್ಗ-"Royal Path for Poets"), a writing on rhetoric, poetics and grammar has been dated to 850 CE, though, it is widely accepted that a considerable volume of literature must have come into existance in the centuries prior.

Medieval Jain writers wrote about Jain Tirthankars and other personages important to the Jain religion. The Virashaiva writers accounted for devotees of the Hindu God Shiva, his twenty five forms, and the expositions of Shaivism while the Vaishnava writers wrote on the great epics; the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata, the Vedanta and other subjects bearing on the Vaishnava puranic stories. Available literature that deals with secular subjects includes writings on grammar, logic, philosophy, poetry, prosody, drama, rhetoric, lexicon, medicine, local history, biography, veterinary science, mathematics, cookery, astrology, astronomy, meteorology, erotics, satire, fiction, romance, folk songs, ballads, fables and parables.

Modern Kannada literature has been the most successful among contemporary Indian vernacular literatures, having been awarded the Jnanpith awards seven times. The Sahitya Academy award, the highest state award for literature has been conferred upon Kannada writers fifty times by the Government of India since its inception in 1954. The history of Kannada literature is usually studied under three phases: ancient, medieval and modern Kannada.

Early literature

The earliest example of full length Kannada writing in the verse form can be found in the Halmidi inscription dated 450 CE, indicating the authors of the inscription had a good sense of the language structure. The earliest available record of Kannada poetry in tripadi metre (three line verse) is the Kappe Arabhatta record of 7th century, indicating the verse form of writing was in vogue.

References are made in Kavirajamarga to earlier writers and their composition styles: Vimalachandra (777), Udaya, Nagarjuna, Jayabhandu and King Durvinita (6th century) as writers of prose; Sri Vijaya, Kavisvara, Pandita, Chandra, Ravi Kirti (634) and Lokapala as writers of poetry; and the compositions that were peculiar to Kannada; the chattana and the bedande (poems comprising several stanzas which were meant to be sung, the use of a musical instrument being optional).

Apart from those mentioned in the Kavirajamarga, later Kannada writers frequently mention three probable poets in the language; Samantabhadra (2nd century), Kavi Parameshthi (3rd - 4th century) and Pujyapada (5th century) as being eminent among their predecessors, though no Kannada works of these writers have been specifically mentioned. However, names and works of other Kannada writers of the early medieval period are known from references made. Syamakundacharya (650) wrote Prabhrita and Srivaradhadeva (also called Tumubuluracharya, 650 or earlier) wrote the Chudamani ("Crest Jewel"), a 96,000 verse commentary on logic.

Gajashtaka, an extinct ashtaka (eight verse stanza) composition was authored by the King Shivamara II in 800. However, its popularity in its time is known from its use as two folk songs, the ovanige and the onakevadu, compositions which were meant to be sung either while pounding corn or to entice wild elephants into a pit (ovam) Around 900, Gunavarma-I wrote the Sudraka and the Harivamsa. He is known to have been patronised by King Ereganga Neetimarga II whom he favourably compared, in Sudraka, to King Sudraka of ancient times.

Digambara Jain poet, Asaga (or Asoka) of 9th century authored several writings including the Karnata Kumarasambhava Kavya and the Varadamanacharitra, though none of his works are available today. A prosody called Gunagankiyam of the same period, perhaps dedicated to the Eastern Chalukya king Vijayaditya III, has been referenced in a Tamil work (Yapparungalakkarigai by Amritasagara). Gunanandi of 900 is known have been an expert in logic, Kannada grammar and prose.

Medieval era

See also: Medieval Kannada literature

Inscribed handwriting of 10th century poet Ranna reads Kavi Ratna (gem among poets) in Shravanabelagola

The medieval period covering the periods between 9th and 13th centuries produced, broadly speaking, writers mostly of the Jain, Virashaiva and secular traditions. Jains were the earliest known cultivators of Kannada literature which they dominated till the 12th century, though a few works by Virashaivas are available. The 13th century to 15th century period saw the emergence of numerous Virashaiva and some Vaishnava writers with a proportional decline in Jain writings. Thereafter, Kannada literature has been dominated by Virashaiva and Vaishnava writers.

Literary metres indigenous to Kannada language are the tripadi (three line verse), the shatpadi (six line verse) and the ragale (lyrical narrative compositions ), the sangatya (composition meant to be sung with a musical instrument) and the akkara. Other popular inherited metres from the 9th century onwards are the champu-kavyas or just champu (poems in verse of various metres interspersed with paragraphs of prose) the dwipadi (two line verse), chowpadi (four line verse), the saptapadi (seven liner verse) and the ashtaka (eight line verse).

Though literature generally refers to writings on conventional material such as palm leaf manuscripts and paper, inscriptions on stone (shilashasana) and copper plates (tamarashasana) and to a lesser extent on gold, silver and even pottery are an important source of history, giving researchers clues about the lifestyle and literary developments. The poetic Atkur inscription of 950 has a sentimental touch while describing the bravery of a Ganga King Butuga and his soldier Manelera, the Kurikyala inscription of 945 immortalizes the achievements of the great Kannada poet Adikavi Pampa, and the Jura (Jabalpur) inscription of King Krishna III (964) is regarded as an epigraphical landmark of classical Kannada literary composition, with charming poetic diction in polished kanda (group of stanzas or chapters) metre.

Elegiac poetry in Kannada on hundreds of hero stones (virgal) written by unknown poets in the kanda and the vritta (commentary) metre mourn the death of heroes who sacrificed their lives in battle for their kings, or in conflict protecting the honor of their women or while safeguarding their cattle against marauders. Some inscriptions describe the bravery of women (mastigal) who performed sati (burning themselves on the funeral pyre of their deceased husbands).

Rashtrakuta period

See also: Rashtrakuta literature and Western Ganga literature

Inscribed handwriting of 10th century Western Ganga minister and Kannada poet Chavundaraya in Shravanabelagola

It was during the reign of the imperial Rashtrakuta Empire and their powerful feudatory, the Western Ganga Dynasty that Kannada literature came into its own and produced many famous writers under royal patronage.

Though some historians credit Kavirajamarga to the Rashtrakuta King Amoghavarsha I, a view that the book may have been inspired by him and co-authored or authored in full by Sri Vijaya, a court poet (the author of the extinct 9th century writing, Chandraprabha purana), is also widely held. The work is a treatise on Kannada poetry, the Kannada language and Kannada speaking people in general, a portion of which describes defective and corrective examples (the "Do's and Dont's") of versification, indicating a prior rich tradition of literature.

The earliest available prose piece in old Kannada is the Vaddaradhane ("Worship of elders", 9th century) by Shivakotiacharya. A priceless work, it contains nineteen lengthy stories, some in the form of fables and parables, such as the "Sage and the monkey". Inspired by the earlier Sanskrit writing Brihatkatha Kosha, it is about Jain tenets and describes issues such as rebirth, karma, the plight of humans on earth, social issues of the time such as education, trade and commerce, magic, superstitions and the condition of women in society.

This is followed by the 10th century Jain writers who heralded the age of classical Kannada; Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna are collectively called the "three gems of Kannada literature". Pampa, though a native of Vengi, he may have grown up in Banavasi and received his educaton in Puligere (modern Lakshmeshwar). Widely regarded as one of the greatest Kannada writers, he became famous for writing the Adipurana in 941. Written in champu style, it narrates the life history of the first Jain Thirtankar Rishabhadeva. In this unque work which describes spiritual heroism, the soul of the Tirthankar moves through a series of births before attaining emancipation. The quest in this spritual saga, as in many others, is the liberation of the soul from the cycle of life and death. Pampa's other notable work, written a few months later, was Vikramarjuna Vijaya (or Pampa Bharata, 941), and is the author's version of the Hindu epic, Mahabharata. The story differs from other earlier versions of the epic in that, Arjuna alone (and not the Pandava brothers) is the hero and Draupadi is only Arjuna's wife. The author underplays the role of Hindu God Krishna and favourably compares his patron King Chalukya Arikesari (a Rashtrakuta feudatory) to Arjuna, while successfully casting a lofty and noble image of Karna and Kaurava Duryodhana.

Sri Ponna, patronised by King Krishna III is famed for, among other writings, his description of the life of the 16th Jain Tirthankar Shantinatha in his writing entitled Santipurana. He earned the title "supreme poet in two languages" (Ubhaya Kavichakravathi) for his command over Kannada and Sanskrit. The poet however, despite claiming superiority over Kalidasa by a "hundred fold", borrowed significantly from the earlier work, though, he does rise the work to the level of a classic.

The Ganga minister, commander, builder and poet, Chavundaraya wrote Chavundaraya Purana (also called Trishashtilakshana mahapurana, 978). The is an existing work in prose style and contains a summary of the Sanskrit writings, Adipurana and Uttarapurana which were written a century earlier. The prose was composed in lucid Kannada, and was mainly meant for the common man avoiding any reference to complicated elements of Jain doctrines and philosophy while narrating the legends of a total of 63 Jain philosophers.

Poetic Inscription in old Kannada by Jain poet Boppana (1180 CE) at Shravanabelagola

Western Chalukya period

See also: Western Chalukya literature

The 11h century starting, Kannada literature made considerable progress under the patronage of the new overlords of the Deccan, the Western Chalukyas and their feudatories; the Hoysalas, the southern Kalachuris and the Seuna Yadavas.

Ranna, who was born in a family of bangle sellers (in Mudhol, modern Bagalkot district), was the court poet of Western Chalukya Kings Tailapa II and King Satyasraya. He was also patronised by a devout Jain lady called Attimabbe. He is famous for his writing Ajitha purana (993) which describes the life of the second Jain Tirthankar Ajitanatha. However, it is in Sahasa Bhima Vijaya (also called Gada Yudda or "Conflict of clubs'", 982) that he reaches his zenith of poetic grace while describing the conflict between Pandava Bhima and Kaurava Duryodhana in his version of the epic Mahabharata.

Unlike Pampa who glorified Arjuna and Karna in his writing, Ranna eulogises his patron King Satyasraya and favourably compares him the Bhima, whom he coronates in at the end of the Mahabharata war. He calls Bhima's adversery Duryodhana "a great person" (mahanubhava). Perhaps the most poignant piece of elegiac verse in all of ancient Kannada literature is one that describes the heart rendering lamentation of Duryodhana (called karuna rasa or "sentiment of pathos") on seeing the slain bodies of his brother Duhshasana, his inseperable friend in joy and sorrow, Karna, and Arjuna's valorous son Abhimanyu. The dramatic effect given to the writing, the powerful language, the diction and the style maintained through out the narration has earned Ranna a place among the immortals of Kannada literature. Ascribed also to Ranna is the earliest known dictionary in Kannada called the Rannakanda (990), though only eleven verses of this writing has come down to us. He was bestowed the title "Emperor among poets" (Kavi Chakravathi) by his patron king.

Among grammarians, Nagavarma-II, poet laureate (Katakacharya) of Chalukya King Jagadhekamalla II made significant contributions. His works in grammar, poetry, prosody, and vocabulary are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged. Among other writings, his Kavyavalokana on grammar and rhetoric and Karnataka Bhashabhushana on grammar (1145) are important. A recent discovery which has been ascribed to Nagavarma II, the Varadhamanapuranam (1042) has created uncertianity about the poet's actual date. The discovery suggests he may have actually lived a century earlier and may have been patronised by King Jayasimha II.

Kalachuri period

See also: Lingayatism and Basavanna

Samadhi of Southern Kalachuri minister and Kannada poet Basavanna at Kudala Sangama

In the later part of the 12th century, the Kalachuris' succeeded in overthrowing their overlords and annexing Kalyani, the capital. A unique and native form of poetic literature in free verse (non metrical verse) called Vachana developed during this brief yet turbulent time, a result of the spread of a new religious faith called Lingayatism. This body of literature is called Vachana Sahitya (ವಚನ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯ) or Sharana Sahitya ("literature of the devotees") .

Basavanna (or Basava, 1160), the prime minister of southern Kalachuri King Bijjala II, is generally regarded the inspiration for this movement. Though born of Brahmin parents (in Basavana Bagewadi in modern Bijapur district), he rejected the ritual "thread ceremony" (upanayanam) and spearheaded this new faith which taught absolute devotion towards God Shiva. A centre of religious discussions called "anubhava mantapa" in Kalyani became the conclave where devotees gathered to discuss their mystic experiences. Here, they expressed their devotion to Shiva in simple poems called Vachanas, poems that were sponteneous utterances of rhythmic, epigrammatical, satirical prose emphasising the valuelessness of riches, rituals and book learning.

Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu, Devara Dasimayya, Chennabasava, Prabhudeva, Siddharama, Konaguli Kesiraja are the best known among more than two hundred poets (called vachanakaras), including thirty women poets. The assassination of King Bijjala and eviction of the the devotees (called sharanas) from Kalyani caused a temporary set back to this order, which however had set roots in the Kannada soil and regained popularity in the 15th century under the patronage of the rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Initially, these poems were recorded on palm leaf manuscripts but were later collected by a group of anthologists in the 15th and 16th centuries, to avoid destruction by the Muslim invaders. Because of the cryptic nature of the poems, the anthologists subjoined them with commentaries, thus providing their hidden meaning and esoteric significance. Well known among these anthologies are the Ganabhasita Ratnamale by Kallumathada Prabhudeva (1430), Visesanubhava Satsthala by Channaviracharya (16th century), Bedagina Vachanagalu by Siddha Basavaraja (1600) and the Sunya Sampadane (the 'mystical zero' symbolizing the supreme soul) by various anthologists.

Hoysala period

See also: Hoysala literature

Hero stone (virgal) with old Kannada elegiac inscription (1220) at the Ishwara temple in Arasikere, Karnataka

In the late 12th century, the Hoysalas, a powerful hill tribe from the Malnad region in modern southern Karnataka, exploited the political uncertianity in the Deccan to emerge as masters of the region south of Krishna river, in southern India. A new chronological era was adopted, imperial titles were claimed and Kannada literature flourished with such noted scholars as Janna, Harihara, Rudrabhatta, Raghavanga, Keshiraja and others. Even the Kannada epigraphs inscribed by the Hoysalas were often written in polished poetic style, on inscriptions decorated with floral designs.

In 1209, the Jain scholar and army commander Janna wrote among other classics, Yashodhara Charite, a unique set of stories dealing with perversion. In one of his stories, a king intends to perform a ritual sacrifice of two young boys to a local deity, Mariamma. Taking pity on the boys, the king releases them and gives up the practice of human sacrifice. In another, the poet narrates the infatuation of a man for his friends wife. Having killed his friend, the man abducts the wife who dies of grief. Overcome by repentance, he burns himself on the funeral pyre of the woman. In honour of this work, Janna received the title "Emperor among poets" (Kavichakravarthi) from King Veera Ballala II. His other classic Anathanatha Purana (1230) deals with the life of the fourteenth Tirthankar Ananthanatha.

Rudrabhatta, a Smartha Brahmin (believer of monistic philosophy), was the earliest well known Brahminical writer whose patron was Chandramouli, a minister of King Veera Ballala II. Based on the earlier work of Vishnu Purana, he wrote Jagannatha Vijaya (1180) in the champu style relating the life of Lord Krishna leading up to his fight with the demon Banasura.

Harihara (or Harisvara), who came from a family of accountants (karnikas), was one of the earliest Virashaiva writers who was not part of the Vachana literary tradition and the patron of King Narasimha I. He wrote the Girijakalyana in the Kalidasa tradition, employing the old Jain champu style, with the story leading to the marriage of Shiva and Parvati in ten sections. In a deviation from the norm, Harihara avoided glorifying saintly mortals. His is credited with more than one hundred poems in ragale metre, praising Virupaksha (a form of Hindu god Shiva) with an ability to express emotions as few poets could. For his poetic talent, he has earned the honorific "poet of exuberance" (utsava kavi).

His nephew, Raghavanka (1165), was the first to introduce the shatpadi metre into Kannada literature in his Harishchandra Kavya, which is considered a classic even though it occasionally violates strict rules of Kannada grammar. A dramatist writing an epic, Raghavanka brings out in an awe-inspiring manner the clash of personalities; between sage Vishvamitra and sage Vashisht and between Harishchandra and Vishvamitra. It is believed that in no other language has the story of King Harishchandra been dealt with this interpretation. The writing is an original both in tradition and inspiration fully utilizing the potential of the shatpadi metre. A noteworthy piece of elegiac verse here is the mourning of Chandramati over the death of her young son Lohitashva, from snake bite, while gathering firewood for his Brahmin taskmaster. His other famous writing is the Siddharama Charitra, a eulogy of the dynamic and compassionate Virashiava saint Siddharama of the 12th century.

The next great writer and grammarian of the 13th century, who came from a family of famous poet-writers was Keshiraja (1260). Keshiraja's grandfather, Sumanobana was poet laureate to King Narasimha I and his father Mallikarjuna graced the Hoysala court too. Though five of Keshiraja's writings are not traceable, his enduring work on Kannada grammar, Shabdamanidarpana ("Mirror of word jewels") is available and testify to his scholarly acument and literary taste. True to his wish that his writing on grammar should "last as long as the sun, the moon, the occeans and the Meru mountain lasted", Shabdamanidharpana is popular even today. It is considered a standard authority on old Kannada grammar and is prescribed as a text book for students of graduate and post graduate level studies in Kannada. Though Keshiraja followed the model of Sanskrit grammar of the Katantra school and that of earlier writings on Kannada grammar, his work has a originality of its own.

Late medieval era

Vijayanagara period

See also: Vijayanagara Empire Literature

Poetic inscription in Kannada by Vijayanagara poet Manjaraja (1398 CE)

Major political changes were taking place in southern India, in the early 14th century, with the decline of the regional Hindu kingdoms and the impending treath of Muslim invasions from the north. The Vijayanagara Empire, with their capital at Vijayanagara, successfully repulsed these invaders and created an atmosphere condusive to the fine arts. Competition between Vaishnava and Virashaiva writers of this era came to the fore and literary disputations between the two sects were common, especially in the court of King Deva Raya II. Acute rivalry led to "organised processions" in honour of the classics written by poets of the respective sects.

Kumara Vyasa (whose real name was Naranappa), is one the most influential of Vaishnava poets in Kannada. He wrote Gadugina Bharata in 1450 in the Vyasa tradition. The writing is so called because the author lived in Gadugu (modern Gadag), but it also goes by the names Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari or Kumaravyasa Bharata. The writing is a dedication to the deity of Gadag and a translation of the first ten chapters of the epic Mahabharata, emphasising the divinity and grace of the Hindu God Krishna. In this writing, the poet successfully portrays all characters with the exception of Krishna as deeply human with foibles. An interesting aspect of the work is the sense of humor the poet and his hero, Krishna display. This work marks a transition of Kannada literature from old to modern and heralds a new age combining poetic perfection with religious inspiration. Particularly known for his use of sophisticated metaphors, Kumara Vyasa earned the title "Emperor of the land of Metaphors" (Rupaka Samrajya Chakravarti). The remaining chapters (parvas) of the epic was translated by Timmanna Kavi (1510) in the court of King Krishnadevaraya. The poet named his work Krishnaraya Bharata after his patron king.

The first complete brahminical adaptaion of the epic Ramayana was by Kumara Valmiki (1500) and is called the Torave Ramayana, after the place Torave where it was written. The author begins the story by devotedly stating that he is merely recounting what was related by Shiva to his consort Parvati. This writing, steeped in the author's devotion for the Hindu God Rama has remained popular for centuries and inspired folk theatre such as the Yakshagana which has made use of its verses while enacting episodes from the great epic. In this version of the epic, King Ravana is one of the suitors at Sita's Swayamvara (literally means a ceremony of "choice of a husband"). Failure at winning the bride's hand sprouts jealousy in his heart towards Rama, the eventual bride groom. As the story progresses, Hanuman, for all his services, is heaped with encomium and is exalted place to the status of "the next creator". At the end of the story, during the war with Rama, Ravana realises that Rama is none other than the God Vishnu and hastens to die at his hands to achieve salvation. The chapter narrating the war (Yuddhakanda) is given prominence over all other chapters.

Chamarasa, an Aradhya Brahimn turned Virashaiva poet was a rival of Kumara Vyasa in the court of Devaraya II. His Prabhulinga Lile (1430), later translated into Telugu and Tamil at the behest of his patron king, was a eulogy of Saint Allama Prabhu. In the story, the saint is considered an incarnation of Hindu God Ganapathi while Parvati took the form of a princess of Banavasi.

Towards the beginning of 15th century, Kannada literature saw another spurt of "mystic" Virashaiva literature, a trend that continued up to the 19th century. Famous among these mystics was Nijaguna Shivayogi who composed devotional songs collectively known as Kaivalya sahitya (or Tattva Padagalu, literally meaning "songs of the pathway to emancipation"). Shivayogi's songs were reflective, philosohpical and concerned with Yoga. Among his other writings, a scientific encyclopaedia called Vivekachintamani is important, an indication of which is its translation into Marathi language in 1604 and Sanskrit language in 1652 and again in the 18th century. The writing categorizes 1500 topics based on subject and covers a wide array such as poetics, dance and drama (natyasastra), musicology and erotics.

Other well known poet saints were Muppina Sadakshari, a contemporary of Shivayogi, whose collection of songs are called Subodhasara, Chidananda Avadhuta of the 17th century, Sarpabhushana Shivayogi of the 18th century and others. So vast is this body of literature that much of it still needs to be studied.

Bhakti literature

See also: Haridasa and Haridasas and Carnatic music

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Stamp released in the memory of Purandara Dasa, © Kamat's Potpourri

The Vaishnava Bhakti (devotional) movement involving well known haridasas (devotee saints) of that time made an indelible imprint on Kannada literature, the result of this movement was a body of literature called Haridasa Sahtiya (ಹರಿದಾಸ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯ). Like the Virashaiva movement of the 12th century, this movement presented another strong current of devotion, pervading the lives of millions. The haridasas' conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through simple Kannada language to the common man in the form of devotional songs (devaranamas and kirthanas). The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples such as Naraharitirtha, Jayatirtha, Vyasatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vadirajatirtha and Purandara Dasa, Kanaka Dasa and others.

Though some accounts hold that Purandara Dasa (whose birth name was Srinivasa Nayaka) was born in Purandaragada or Purandaraghatta, near modern Pune, inscriptional evidence suggests he was born in 1484 in Ksemapura, near Tirthahalli in modern Shivamogga district. A wandering bard, Purandara Dasa's songs were sponteneous, blended with sweet music and ended with a salutation to his deity Purandara Vittala. According to contemporary literature, he is believed to have composed 475,000 songs in the Kannada and Sanskrit languages. However, of these, only about 1000 are known today. He succeeded in presenting the essence of the Upanishads and the Puranas in simple yet expressive compositions. Purandara Dasa is one of the most prominent composers in Carnatic music (Karnataka Sangita Shastra). His compositions are featured in various ragas. For the purpose of imparting this musical knowledge to the common man, he codified the svaravalis, alankaras, geethams, prabhandas and the kriti art forms. Owing to these contributions, he has earned the honorific "Father of Carnatic Music" (Karnataka Sangeeta Pitamaha).

Kanaka Dasa of Kaginele (in modern Haveri district) was a wondering ascetic and spiritual seeker, who according to historical accounts came from a family of shepherds (kuruba) or hunters (beda). He authored important writings such as Mohanatarangini ("River of delight") which narrates the story of the Hindu God Krishna in sangatya metre, Nrisimhastava is a work dealing with glory of God Narasimha, Nalacharita and Hari Bhaktisara in shatpadi metre. The latter writing which is on morals (niti), devotion (bhakti) and renunciation (vairagya) has found popularity as a standard book of learning for children. A unique poem titled Ramadhanya Charitre ("Story of Rama's chosen grain") exalts ragi, the staple food grain of the Kannada speaking region, above all other grains is ascribed to Kanaka Dasa.

The haridasa movement became active again from the 17th century through 19th century with such famous poets as Vijaya Dasa, Gopala dasa, Jagannatha Dasa and others, this time centred on the region of modern Raichur. Over a period of time, these devotional songs took inspired a form of religious and didactic performing art of the Vaishnava people called the harikatha (loosely knit stories), a composite art comprising music, dialogue, monologue, acting and a scholarly discourse on Vishnu or one of his saintly devotees. This art form is considered a by-product of the carnatic music which was standardized by Purandara Dasa in the 16th century. The performer of a harikatha is called a harikatha vidhwan. Similar developments were seen among the followers of the Virashaiva faith who popularised the shivakatha (stories of Shiva) where the performer is called a Kirtankar.

Mysore period

See also: Literature of the Kingdom of Mysore and Musicians of the Kingdom of Mysore

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King and poet-Kanteerva Narasaraja Wodeyar (1673-1714 CE)

With the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Kingdom of Mysore gained power in the southern Karnataka region. The Mysore court was adorned by famous writers and composers and the kings themselves were accomplished in the fine arts and made important contributions. A wave of writings in such new genres as chronicles (vamshavali), biographies, historicals, encyclopedias, novels, dramas, treatises on music and musical compositions became popular. A unique and native form of poetic literature with dramatic representation called Yakshagana gained popularity in the 18th century.

King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar (1673-1704), the earliest composer of the dynasty, received the honorific Sahitya Vidyanikasha Prastharam for his interest in the fine arts. To him is ascribed the famous treatise on music in called Geetha Gopala. Though inspired by Jayadeva's Sanskrit writing Geetha Govinda, it had an originality of its own and was written in saptapadi metre. This is the first writing to propagate the Vaishnava faith in the Kannada language.

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King and poet-Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1794-1868 CE)

Famous writers in Kannada literature not from royalty include among others, the brahmin poet Lakshmisa, the Jain grammarian Bhattakalanka Deva and the Virashaiva poet Sarvajna. Bhattakalanka Deva was the last of the three notables who wrote about old Kannada grammar (Nagavarma II and Kesiraja being the other two). A native of South Canara, he was an expert in Sanskrit grammar as well. While his writing, Karnataka Sabdanusasanam, is modelled on the lines of Sanskrit grammar, his emphasis on the importance of Kannada language and its rich literary history is evident.

A mendicant poet and moralist whose origin is shrouded in mystery, Sarvajna, (literally "The all knowing") has left his mark on Kannada literature and the Kannada speaking people. Some clues in the first fourteen of a series of poems written by him ("Reminiscences of birth") give an indication about his birth, parentage and his reasons for leaving home at an early age. It is believed he was born in Ambalur (Abbalur in modern Haveri district) to an illicit relationship between a Brahmin man called Basavarasa and Mali, the wife of a potter named Mala. Davasale Sarvajna as he calls himself in one of these poems, grew up to be a candid and outspoken boy. Alarmed that he may someday reveal her exra-marital relationship to her husband Mala, his mother may have sent Sarvajna out of the house. Unable to bear the taunts of society, he may have become a drifter. His poems after the 14th focus on his spiritual quest.

Scholars place him between the 15th and 18th centuries based on other literary evidence. A few of his poems give more hints about his adulthood, his Guru and a possible unsuccessful marriage. After the deah of his guru, Sarvajna may have taken to ascetism, acquiring knowledge from the world, rather than from formal education, writing poems about the nature of people and places. His witty poems are his observations on the art of living, the purpose of life and the ways of the world written in a simple tripadi metre popular in folk literature. A tomb in Hirekerur (modern Haveri district) it is said, is his final resting place. Neither was he patronized by royalty nor did he write for fame, his main aim was to instruct people about morality. All his poems end with his name "Sarvajna".

Lakshmisa's Jaimini Bharata, written in shatpadi metre is a Kannada version of the Sanskrit original and is one of the most popular poems of the late medieval period. A superb story-teller and a dramatist, the author was a native of Devanur in Kadur taluk and writing is dated to the middle of 16th or late 17th century. A collection of stories, the poem contains the famous tale of the "Repudiation of Sita" (Sita parityaga). The author has succeeded in converting a religious story into a very human tale, making it popular even in modern times.

Yakshagana stage performance in progress

Evidence from inscriptions and epics confirms that Kannada theatre existed from the 12th century or earlier. Names of actors, auditoriams and other theatrical requirements are available. However, modern Kannada drama started with the Yakshagana (a type of field play) whose manuscripts which are available from the 16th century. However, it is the rule of King Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II (1673-1714) that heralded the golden age of Yakshagana compositions. A polyglot, he authored fourteen Yakshaganas in various languages though all are written in the Kannada script. He is credited with the earliest Yakshaganas that included music (sangita), drama (nataka) and dance (natya).

King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1794-1868) was a prolific writer for which he was called Abhinava Bhoja. Over forty writings are attributed to him of which a poetical romance called Saugandika Parinaya written in two versions, a sangatya and a drama, are popular. Here, the author imaginatively narrates the story of the sage Durvasa who curses Devendra (the Hindu god Indra) to be born as Sucharitra, the son of Sugandharaya, the king of Ratnapuri. Devendra's wife Shachidevi takes birth as Sougandhika and marries Sucharitra. The king wrote three landmark musical treatises called Sri Tatwanidhi (with iconography), Swara Chudamani and Sara Sangraha Bharata.

Modern period

19th century

Ferdinand Kittel (1832-1903), Christian missionary and Kannada writer

The nascent beginnings of modern Kannada literature can be traced to the early 19th century under the stewardship of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III and some court poets who attempted to steer away from the ancient champu form of prose and popularize prose renderings of Sanskrit epics and plays. Kempu Narayana's Mudramanjusha ("Seal Casket", 1823) can be considered the first modern novel, anterior to English influence on Kannada. Though inspired by Visakhadatta's Sanskrit original Mudrarakshasa, the author displays a creativity of its own.

Impetus to modern literature came from a western style education and the Christian missionaries who relied on the local language to propagate their gospel. The arrival of the printing press became a catalyst to this process. Among the several early Kannada publications, the first Kannada-English dictionary by Ferdinand Kittel (1894) is noteworthy. B.L. Rice edited and published ancient Kannada classics and compiled a brief history of Kannada literature while J.H. Fleet compiled a collection of folk ballads including the well known Sangoli Rayana Dange ("The revolt of Sangolli Raya"). The most outstanding lyrical poet of this period, whose poems were reminiscent of the medieval mystic Kannada poetry was Sisunala Sharief.

In the later half of the 19th century, progress towards original works in prose narratives gained momentum initially through translations from Sanskrit, English (Yatrikana Sanchara from "The Pilgrims Progress", 1847), Marathi (Yamuna Paryatana) and Bengali languages (Durgesanandini). Early dramatic literatures were translations from Sanskrit (Shakuntala, 1869) and English (Macbeth, King Lear and Romeo and Juliet).

Father of modern Kannada literature, B.M. Srikantiah (1881-1946)

With the standardization of modern prose, the earliest original social fictions were Suryakantha by Lakshman Gadagkar (1892) and Indira Bai by Gulvadi Venkata Rao (1899). With the theme being reform, the latter work critically examines social issues, reflecting an awakening. Original plays carrying the same theme are, among others, the Iggappa Heggadeya Vivaha Prahasana by Suri Venkataramana Sastri (1887). Nanadalike Lakshminarayana ('Muddanna') wrote two important prose pieces; Adbhuta Ramayana (1895) and Ramaswamedham (1898). What makes the latter writing historically important is that the epic Ramayana is looked at from a modern view point with the author as the narrator and his wife as the listener, the narration being interrupted at various stages with humorous exchanges between the couple, resulting from questions rised by the listener. The transition from the age of verse to prose may be summed up with Muddanna's proclaimation "poetry deserves killing whereas prose reaces the heart" (Padyam vadyam, Gadyam hridyam).

Lyricist, D.R. Bendre (1896 - 1981)

1900-1925

With the turn of the century, B.M. Srikantaiah ('B.M. Sri'), regarded by some as the "Father of modern Kannada literature" gave the call for writing originals in modern Kannada, emancipate the language from ancient courtly classics and stressed the need for the influence of English literature. This period can be considered a seed time, for a golden age to come. His adaptation of lyrics from English were effective, the best known among his works being the English Geethagalu ("English songs"), a seminal work that set the trend for "Navodaya" (New birth) Kannada poetry to come. Other notable poets who were able to evolve new metrics out of old ones were Masti Venkatesh Iyengar in his poem of love and tragedy, the Madalingana Kanive ("Madalinga's Valley", 1924) and Govinda Pai in the Kavitavatara (1916).

Though Panje Manjesh Rao (1900) is considered a pioneer in the field of short stories, it is Masti Venkatesh Iyengar who is credited for laying the foundation for a generation of short story tellers with his Kelavu Sanna Kathegalu ("A few short stories", 1920) and Sanna Kathegalu ("Short stories", 1924).

The consolidation of modern drama was pioneered by T.P. Kailasam, a towering personality in the field, with his Tollu Gatti ("The hollow and the solid", 1918). In contrast to the earlier Indira Bai (1899), this work examines the modern education system from a Gandhian viewpoint. Kailasam followed this with Tali Kattoke Cooline ("Wages for tying the mangalsutra"), a story that criticizes the dowry system in marriage. Kailasam's plays were mainly concerned with problems effecting middle class Brahmin families; the dowry system, religious persecution, woes in the extended family system and exploitation of women. He represented for the first time in Kannada theatre, a spokesperson for liberal values and is thus considered by some as the one who laid the foundation of amateur Kannada theatre.

Summarizing the earlier historicals written in English by B.L.Rice, J.H. Fleet, Robert Sewell and Bhandarkar, Alur Ventaka Rao wrote the novel Karnataka Ghatavaibhava (1917). The work was intended to re-kindle pride among Kannadigas about their glorious past and bring awareness about the great rulers, poets and saints who had originated from Karnataka, its traditions and its heritage in arts and architecture.

Kuvempu (1904 - 1994), Karnataka Ratna ("Gem of Karnataka")

1925-1950

Navodaya

The Navodaya period (New birth) saw the rise of acclaimed lyricists who combined mystic poetry of the Vachanas and Kirthanas of medieval times and the native folk songs of oral traditions with influences from modern English romantics. Best known among them are D. R. Bendre, Gopalakrishna Adiga, K.V.Puttappa (Kuvempu), V.K. Gokak, Masti Venkatesh Iyengar, D.V. Gundappa ('DVG'), P.T. Narasimhachar, V.Seetharamiah, G.P. Rajaratnam and K.S. Narasimhaswamy.

Bendre is perhaps the most outstanding of modern Kannada lyricists who authored a collection of 27 poems, including such masterpieces as Gari ("Wing", 1932), Nadaleela (1938) and Sakhigeetha (1940). His poems had a transcdental quality about them which were neither narrative or dramatic. His poems cover a wide range of themes including patriotism, love of nature, conjugal love, transcendental experiences and sympathy for the poor. The Sakhigeetha is a autobiographical poem about his married life and personal experiences. Bendre had sworn that, in his poetry, he would "rather sow stars in Kannada soil than brillian jewels".

The beauty and grandeur of the Malnad hills, strongly influenced Kuvempu, one of Kannada's doyen poets, in his Kalki (1933) in which the poet describes the life of the agrarian community. He further showed his talent in using the blank verse in his masterpiece, the Sri Ramayana Darshanam (1949) which contains 22,284 lines, divided into 50 cantos. This works marks the beginning of modern Kannada epic poetry. While the poem follows the Valmiki tradition, Kuvempu puts a stamp of originality on it, bringing together the Indan and western epic traditions. In a departure from the original epic, Lanka (Ceylon) does not burn in the war nor does Sita enter the fire alone, but rather is followed by Rama. Like medieval poet Nagachandra, Kuvempu portrays Ravana as an "evolving soul". He pays homage to all the great poets of the world, including sage Valmiki, thus placing himself in the tradition of world epic poetry.

Govinda Pai succeeded in depicting an authentic Christian ambience in Golgotha (1931) and of the Buddha's nirvana in Vaishakhi (1947), the former depicts the last days of Christ and the latter, that of the Buddha. Gopalakrishna Adiga describes the joy of political independence in Kattuvevu Navu ("We shall built", 1984), a longing for spiritual values in Mohana Murali and the importance of individual freedom in Samaja Bhairava.

Perhaps the closest in comparison to the wisdom poems of the late medieval poet Sarvajna is the Manku Thimmana Kagga ("Dull Thimma's Rigmarole", 1943) by D.V. Gundappa. A successful journalist, he was known for his command over the Kannada language and its classics, with a knowledge of Sanskrit as well, despite his limited education which was limited to matriculation only. These qualities and experiences were to serve him well as a writer. Attributed to him are 60 writings in just about every genre of modern Kannada with the exception of the novel. His adaptation of Shakespeare's Macbeth into Kannada is well acclaimed.

The celebrated writer of conjugal love poems, K.S. Narasimhaswamy penned Mysore Mallige ("Mysore Jasmine", 1942) describing with ease the bliss of everyday martial life.

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Shivarama Karanth (1902 - 1997)

Eminent poets produced inspiring poetic dramas, B.M. Srikantiah being the trail blazer with his Gadayuddha Natakam ("The war of clubs", 1925), a modern version of Ranna's 982 classic and Aswaththaman, a native version of the Greek play Ajax by Sophocles. This was the begining of tragic drama in Kannada, and a new way portraying ancient local heroes.

Govinda Pai's Hebberalu ("Thumb", 1946) dramatizes the story of Drona and Ekalavya, characters from the epic Mahabharata. Kailasam and his worthy contemporary, A.N. Swamy Venkatadri Iyer ('Samsa') continued to produce fine dramas. Samsa is credited with writing 23 plays, of which only 6 have survived. Of these, a trilogy on the Mysore King Ranadhira Kanteerava are well known; Vigada Vikramarya ("The wicked Vikramarya", 1928), Vijayanarasimha (1936) and Mantrashakti in (1938). Adya Rangacharya ('Sri Ranga') wrote on Gandhian values and the decadence caused by the caste system in his Harijanwara ("The Harijan week", 1934) and the Sandhyakala (1939).

The wit and satire in Kailasam's language, Kannada laced with English, and the social reformer in him are best exemplified in his plays Bahishkara (1929) which focusses on religious practices, and Soole ("Prostitue", 1945), which dwells on social problems. Masti Venkatesh Iyengar eloquently brought out the essense of the tribal world in his Kakanakote ("Kaka's fort", 1938). The 1930's saw the rise of another major figure in Kannada literature, Shivarama Karanth, who debuted in play Garbhagudi ("Sanctum", 1932), which decries the exploitation of society in the name of religion.

A series of successfull novels were written in this period, best known among which are Karanth's Chomana Dudi ("Choma's toil", 1933) which describes the plight of a harijan in Indian society, Kanur Subbamma Heggadithi ("Subbamma Heggadithi of Kanur", 1936) which is about an educated protagonist in a conservative society, Marali Mannige ("Back to the soil", 1942), a story about rural life on the west coast centred on a family's evolution over three generations, during a time of change brought about by westernization. V.K. Gokak's Ijjodu (1935) dwells on marital problems caused by sexual incompatibility.

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V.K. Gokak (1909-1992)

Though Masti Venkatesh Iyengar continued to dominate in short stories, other notable writers of this period were Gorur Ramaswamy Iyengar and Ajjampur Sitaram ('Ananda'). Ananda's oustanding book, Nanu Konda Hudugi ("The girl I killed") is a tragedy centred on a girl who commits suicide after social disgrace. Influence of the west inspired a new genre in writing, the Essay. Here, Gorus's Halliya Chitrgalu ("Village Vignettes, 1930) and A.N. Murthy Rao's Hagaluganasugalu ("Day dreams", 1937) are best known.

1950-1975

Late Navodaya

This period saw the emergence of new trends such as the Navya (Modernist), Pragatishila (Progressive) though the legends of the previous era continued to produce notable works in the older style. In poetry, D.R. Bendre's Naku Tanti ("Four strings", 1964), Kuvempu's Aniketana (1964), Masti's Navaratri ("Nine nights") and his epic Sri Rama Pattabhishekam ("Rama's coronation", 1972) were important. Gokak brings out the innate insufficiencies in the more advanced western cultures in his Indilla Nale (1965). In drama, Sriranga grieved over the loss of Gandhian values in the post independence era in his Shoka Chakra ("Circle of grief") (1957).

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Romance poet, K.S. Narasimhaswamy

The Navodaya style novels continued to make success with such noteworthy works as Shivarama Karanth's Mookajjiya Kanasugalu ("Mookajji's visions", 1968) where Karanth explores the origins of mans' faith in the mother goddess and the various stages of evolution of civilization. Kuvempu's Malegallali Madumagalu ("The bride of the hills", 1967) depicts in detail loving relationships in every strata of society. Being a playwrite, Sri Ranga gives a dramatic touch to his Purushartha (1947) where the entire action is on August 15th, 1947, and the protagonist and his three friends reminisce about the past.

Masti two classics novels of this era were the Channabasavanayaka (1950) which describes the fall of Bidanur (on Karnataka's coast) to Haider Ali in the late 18th century and Chickavirarajendra (1950) which describes the fall of the tiny kingdom of Coorg into the hands of the British East India Company. Masti describes the social, economic, political and cultural situation at that time and the methods used by the British to gain territorial control.

Important women writers of the time were Tirumalamba, the first woman novelist, Anasuya Shankar ('Triveni') and M. K. Indira who present an insight into womens' problems. A charismatic young writer, S.L. Bhyrappa made his presence felt from the 1960's with the Vamsavriksha (1966), a story of family tradition, Grihabhanga (1970), the story of a woman who tries in vain to survive under tragic circumstances and Datu ("Crossing", 1973) which portrays a harijan who revolts against the caste system.

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Playwrite, Girish Karnad

Pragatishila

For a short while, a simplistic kind of fiction literature called Pragatishila (progressive), meant for the common man, gained popularity. The earliest writings in this style however is ascribed to A.N. Krishna Rao ('An Ka Ru') who portrayed an idealistic musician in his Sandhyaraga (1935). Best known writers in this class are Basavaraj Kattimani who celebrated the heroes of the Quit India Movement in his Madi Madidavaru ("Those who did and died"), the tenacity of a journalist in Jwalamuhkiyamele ("On the volcano", 1951), the rural atmosphere in Mannu mattu hennu ("Soil and women"). His Mohada Baleyalli ("Caught in passion") describes cases of immorality in religious institutions.

The artist in T.R. Subba Rao ('Ta Ra Su') is evident in his well known Masanada Hoovu ("Flower from a cemetery") which is about the plight of prostitues, the Hamsa Gita ("Swan song") is about a dedicated musician during the time Chitradurga territory was annexed by Tipu Sultan in the late 18th century.

Navya

It was Gokak who gave the clarion call that the Navya (modernist) poetic era had arrived, with his Navya kavitegalu ("Modernist poems", 1950). With the passing of the Gandhi era and the influences it had brought upon the mindset of people, a new era in which to express modern sensibilities had arrived. Gopalakrishna Adiga is considered the father of this expression with his Nadedu Banda Dari ("The Path Traversed", 1952) where he sought inspiration from Elliot and Auden. His other famous poems are Gondalapura ("Pandemonium", 1954), Bhoota (1959) and others.

Novelist, U.R.Ananthamurthy

K.S. Narasimhaswamy continued to be prominent in this era with such poems as Idadiru Nanna Ninna Simhasanada Mele ("Place menot on your throne") and Gadiyaradangadiya munde ("Before the clock shop"). Though belonging to the earlier Navodaya generation and of the Gokak mould, G.S. Shivarudrappa made his mark in the Navya period too. His Mumbai Jataka ("A Horoscope of Bombay", 1966) takes a closer look at urbanized society on Mumbai. Among the later generation of Navya poets, the most well known, among others, are Chandrashekhara Kambar, Chandrashekar Patil, P. Lankesh, K.S. Nissar Ahmed.

In the late 1950's, Sri Ranga produced some well known Navya drams focussing more on man, the creator of society. than on social problems. in his Kattale Belaku ("Darkness and Light", 1959) and Kelu Janamejaya ("Listen Janamejaya", 1960). But the most outstanding playwrties from this period are Girish Karnad, P. Lankesh, Chandrashekara Kambar and Chandrashekar Patil. Karnad's Tughlaq (1964) portrays the violence created by idealism gone astray. Kambara's Jokumaraswamy (1973) presensts the conflict between a ruthless power on one hand and the popular revolt on the other, leading to the death of the protagonist, the soil tiller, while Lankesh's Sankranthi (1973) brings out the tumultous events in the late 12th century, during the rise of the Virashaiva faith, and the struggle of Brahminism agaist this development. The presentation includes disputations between the saint-poet Basavanna and his patron King Bijalla II.

Novelist Poornachandra Tejaswi

The Navya novel was launced by Shantinath Desai with his Mukti (1961) which narrates the protagonist's quest for an independent identity, and liberation of his dependence on a friend and his infatuation for the friends sister. However, the acclaimed classic in this genre was the Samaskara by U.R.Anantha Murthy (1965). The novel narrates the search for a new identity and values by the protagonist, a Brahmin, who has sexual intercourse with the untouchable mistress of his heretic adversary. Other notable works are the Swarupa (1966) by Poornachandra Tejaswi.

In the genre of short stories, writers who are best known are U.R. Anantha Murthy, Yashwant Chittal, P. Lankesh, Ramachandra Sharma, Shantinath Desai, Rajalakshmi Rao and K.Sadashiva. Anantha Murthy's Prasne (1963) contain his best collection of short stories such as Ghatashraddha which narrates from a boy's point of view, the tragedy that befalls a yound pregnant widow, and Mouni (1973), which contains stories such as Navilugulu and Clip joint. Veena Shanteswar brings out the feminine sensibilities to her novels, notable among them being Mullugalu ("Throns", 1968) and Koneya Dari ("The Final choice", 1972)

Navyottara

From the early 1970's, a change is seen in the output of novels and stories, a anti-Navya reaction by writers, many of who were themselves Navya writers. This genre, called Navyottara (post modernist), sought to fulfil a more socially responsible role. Most well known in this form of writing is Poornachandra Tejaswi and Devanur Mahadeva. Tejaswi's Abachurina Post office ("The post office at Abachur") narrating the repercussions of setting up a post office at Abachur, Kubi mattu Iyala which is about a Doctor who combats the superstitions of villagers and and the Tabarana Kathe ("Tabara's Story") which decries bureaucracy are considered classics. Mahadeva's Marikondavaru ("Those who sold themselves") and Mudala Seemeli Kole Gile Ityadi ("Murder in the eastern region") effectively portray a realistic account of the life of dalits.

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