Water

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This article focuses on water as it is experienced in everyday life. See Water (molecule) for information on the chemical and physical properties of pure water (H2O, hydrogen oxide), and Water (film) for the movie of the same name.
A girl in a swimming pool

Water (from the Old English waeter; c.f German "Wasser", from PIE *wod-or, "water"), in its pure form, is a tasteless, odorless substance that is essential to all known forms of life and is known also as the most universal solvent. It appears colorless to the naked eye in small quantities, though it can be seen to be blue in large quantities or with scientific instruments [1]. An abundant substance on Earth, it exists in many places and forms. It appears mostly in the oceans and polar ice caps, but also as clouds, rain water, rivers, freshwater aquifers, and sea ice. On the planet, water is continuously moving through the cycle involving evaporation, precipitation, and runoff to the sea.

Water fit for human consumption is called drinking water or "potable water". Water that is not specifically made for drinking, but is not harmful for humans when used for food preparation is called safe water.

This natural resource is becoming more scarce in certain places, and its availability is a major social and economic concern. This may be referred to as the "water bubble", in analogy to the dot-com bubble.

Currently, about 1 billion people around the world routinely drink unhealthy water. Most countries have accepted the goal of halving by 2015 the number of people worldwide who do not have access to safe water and sanitation during the 2003 G8 Evian summit [2]. Even if this difficult goal is met, it will still leave more than an estimated half a billion people without access to safe drinking water supplies and over 1 billion without access to adequate sanitation facilities. Poor water quality and bad sanitation are killers; some 5 million deaths a year are caused by polluted drinking water.

Hardly surprising, since in the developing world, 90% of all wastewater still goes untreated into local rivers and streams. Some 50 countries, with roughly a third of the world’s population, also suffer from medium or high water stress, and 17 of these extract more water annually than is recharged through their natural water cycles [citation needed]. The strain affects surface freshwater bodies like rivers and lakes, but it also degrades groundwater resources.

Molecular properties

Main article: Water (molecule)

Water has the chemical formula H2O, meaning that one molecule of water is composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. It can also be described ionically as HOH, with a hydrogen ion (H+) that is bonded to a hydroxide ion (OH-). It is in dynamic equilibrium between the liquid and vapor states at standard temperature and pressure. At room temperature, it is a nearly colorless, tasteless, and odorless liquid. It is often referred to in the sciences as the universal solvent and the only pure substance found naturally in all three states of matter.

Forms of water

Snowflakes by Wilson Bentley, 1902
Further information: Category: Forms of water

Water takes many different shapes on Earth: water vapor and clouds in the sky, waves and icebergs in the sea, glaciers in the mountain, aquifers in the ground, to name but a few. Through evaporation, precipitation, and runoff, water is continuously flowing from one form to another, in what is called the water cycle.

Because of the importance of precipitation to agriculture, and to mankind in general, different names are given to its various forms: while rain is common in most countries, other phenomena are quite surprising when seen for the first time. Hail, snow, fog or dew are examples. When appropriately lit, water drops in the air can refract sunlight to produce rainbows.

Similarly, water runoffs have played major roles in human history as rivers and irrigation brought the water needed for agriculture. Rivers and seas offered opportunity for travel and commerce. Through erosion, runoffs played a major part in shaping the environment providing river valleys and deltas which provide rich soil and level ground for the establishment of population centers.

Water also infiltrates the ground and goes into aquifers. This groundwater later flows back to the surface in springs, or more spectacularly in hot springs and geysers. Groundwater is also extracted artificially in wells.

Because water can contain many different substances, it can taste or smell very differently. In fact, humans and other animals have developed their senses to be able to evaluate the drinkability of water: animals generally dislike the taste of salty sea water and the putrid swamps and favor the purer water of a mountain spring or aquifer.

Water in biology and human civilization

File:Drinkingwater.JPG
Drinking water from a tap

From a biological standpoint, water has many distinct properties that are critical for the proliferation of life that set it apart from other substances. Water carries out this role by allowing organic compounds to react in ways that ultimately allows replication. It is a good solvent and has a high surface tension, and thus allows organic compounds and living things to be transported in it. Fresh water has its greatest density under normal atmospheric pressure at 4 °C, then becoming less dense as it freezes or heats up from this point. As a stable, polar molecule prevalent in the atmosphere, it plays an important role as a greenhouse gas absorbing infrared radiation, without which, Earth's average surface temperature would be −18 ° Celsius. Water also has an unusually high specific heat, which allows it to play many roles in regulating global and regional climate. Because it absorbs strongly in the infrared portion of the light spectrum, a small amount of visible red light is absorbed as well, resulting in water's slightly blue color when seen in mass quantities such as a lake or ocean.

Water is a very good solvent, dissolving many types of substances, such as various salts and sugar. It facilitates chemical interactions such as the process of metabolism.

Some substances, however, do not mix well with water, including lipids, some proteins and other hydrophobic substances. This is why oil and water, famously, do not mix. Cell membranes take advantage of this property to carefully control interactions between their contents and external chemicals, which is facilitated somewhat by the surface tension of water.

Water has a high surface tension caused by the strong cohesion between water molecules. This can be seen when small quantities of water are put onto a nonsoluble surface such as polythene: the water stays together as drops. On extremely clean glass the water may form a thin film because the molecular forces between glass and water molecules (adhesive forces) are stronger than the cohesive forces.

In biological cells and organelles, water is in contact with membrane and protein surfaces that are hydrophilic, that is, surfaces that have a strong attraction to water. Irving Langmuir observed a strong repulsive force between hydrophilic surfaces. To dehydrate hydrophilic surfaces—to remove the strongly held layers of water of hydration—requires doing substantial work against these forces, called hydration forces. These forces are very large, but decrease rapidly over a nanometer or less. Their importance in biology has been extensively studied by Parsegian. They are particularly important when cells are dehydrated by exposure to dry atmospheres or to extracellular freezing.

A simple but environmentally important and unique property of water is that its common solid form, ice, floats on its liquid form. This solid phase is less dense than liquid water, due to the geometry of the strong hydrogen bonds which are formed only at lower temperatures. For almost all other substances and for all other 11 uncommon phases of water ice except ice-XI, the solid form is more dense than the liquid form. Fresh water at standard atmospheric pressure is most dense at 4 °C, and will sink by convection as it cools to that temperature, and if it becomes colder it will rise instead. This reversal will cause deep water to remain warmer than shallower freezing water, so that ice in a body of water will form first at the surface and progress downward, while the majority of the water underneath will hold a constant 4 °C. This effectively insulates a lake floor from the cold. While this behavior may seem obvious, even intuitive, it should be noted that almost all other chemicals are denser as solids than they are as liquids, and freeze from the bottom up.

A common misconception about water is that it is a powerful conductor of electricity, with risks of electrocution explaining this popular belief. Any electrical properties observable in water are due to the ions of mineral salts and carbon dioxide dissolved in it. Water does self-ionize where two water molecules become one hydroxide anion and one hydronium cation, but not enough to carry enough electric current to do any work or harm for most operations. Pure water can also be electrolized into oxygen and hydrogen gases but without any dissolved ions, this is a very slow process and thus very little current is conducted. Many bottled water companies exploit another common misconception, advertising both purity and taste, even though pure water is tasteless.

Civilization has historically flourished around rivers and major waterways; Mesopotamia, the so-called cradle of civilization, is situated between two major rivers. Large metropolises like London, Paris, New York, and Tokyo owe their success in part to their easy accessibility via water and the resultant expansion of trade. Islands with safe water ports, like Singapore and Hong Kong, have flourished for precisely this reason. In places such as North Africa and the Middle East, where water is scarcer, access to clean drinking water was and is a major factor in human development.

Astronomical position of Earth and impact on its water

Impact of water

Scientists theorize that most of the universe's water is produced as a byproduct of star formation. Gary Melnick, a scientist at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, explains: "For reasons that aren't entirely understood, when stars are born, their birth is accompanied by a strong outward wind of gas and dust. When this outflowing material eventually impacts the surrounding gas, the shock waves that are created compress and heat the gas. The water we observe is rapidly produced in this warm dense gas." [3]

The coexistence of the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases of water on Earth is vital to existence of life on Earth. However, if the Earth's location in the solar system were even marginally closer or further from the Sun (ie, a million miles or so), the conditions which allow the three forms to be present simultaneously would be far less likely to exist.

Earth's mass allows gravity to hold an atmosphere. Water vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere provide a greenhouse effect which helps maintain a relatively steady surface temperature. If Earth were less massive, a thinner atmosphere would cause temperature extremes preventing the accumulation of water except in polar ice caps (as on Mars).

The distance between Earth and the Sun, the combination of solar radiation received and the greenhouse effect of the atmosphere ensure that Earth's surface is neither too cold nor too hot for liquid water. If Earth were more distant from the Sun, most water would be frozen. If Earth were nearer to the Sun, its higher surface temperature would limit the formation of ice caps, or cause water to exist only as vapor.

It has been proposed that life itself may maintain the conditions that have allowed its continued existence. The surface temperature of Earth has been relatively constant through geologic time despite varying levels of incoming solar radiation (insolation), indicating that a dynamic process governs Earth's temperature via a combination of greenhouse gases and surface or atmospheric albedo. This proposal is known as the Gaia hypothesis.

Human uses of water

Water pressure in a sprinkler

All known forms of life depend on water. (Note however that some bacteria and plant seeds can enter a cryptobiotic state for an indefinite period when dehydrated, and "come back to life" when returned to a wet environment). Water is a vital part of many metabolic processes within the body, and significant quantities of water are used during the digestion of food.

About 72% of the fat free mass of the human body is made of water. To function properly the body requires between one and seven liters of water per day to avoid dehydration, the precise amount depending on the level of activity, temperature, humidity, and other factors. However, most of this is ingested through other foods or beverages (hot tea being often used in deserts to avoid dehydration, etc.) It is not clear how much water intake is needed by healthy people. However, for those who do not have kidney problems, it is rather difficult to drink too much water, but (especially in warm humid weather and while exercising) dangerous to drink too little. People can drink far more water than necessary while exercising, however, putting them at risk of water intoxication, which can be fatal. The "fact" that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be traced back to a scientific source [4]. There are other myths such as the effect of water on weight loss and constipation that have been dispelled [5].

A manual water pump in China.

The latest dietary reference intake report by the US National Research Council recommended 2.7 liters of water total (including food sources) for women and 3.7 liters for men [6]. Water is lost from the body in urine and feces, through sweating, and by exhalation of water vapor in the breath.

Humans require water that does not contain too much salt or other impurities. Common impurities include chemicals and/or harmful bacteria, such as Vibrio. Some solutes are acceptable and even desirable for perceived taste enhancement and to provide needed electrolytes.

Water as a precious resource: politics of water

See water resources for information about fresh water supplies; see also Category:Water and politics for articles treating about water politics
People queue to gather water during the Siege of Sarajevo.

Because of the growth of world population, mass consumption and pollution, the availability of drinking water per capita is shrinking. For this reason, water is a strategic resource in the globe, and an important element in many political conflicts. Some have predicted that clean water will become the "next oil", making Canada, with this resource in abundance, possibly the richest country in the world. There is a long history of conflict over water, including efforts to gain access to water, the use of water in wars started for other reasons, and tensions over shortages and control [7]. UNESCO's World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from its World Water Assessment Program indicates that, in the next 20 years, the quantity of water available to everyone is predicted to decrease by 30%. 40% of the world's inhabitants currently have insufficient fresh water for minimal hygiene. More than 2.2 million people died in 2000 from diseases related to the consumption of contaminated water or drought. In 2004, the UK charity WaterAid reported that a child dies every 15 seconds due to easily preventable water-related diseases. Fresh water, now more precious than ever in our history for its extensive use in agriculture, high-tech manufacturing, and energy production, is increasingly receiving attention as a resource requiring better management and sustainable use.

Water in the OECD countries

With nearly 2,000 cubic metres of water per person and per year, the United States leads the world in water consumption per capita (a large quantity of golf fields and car washing partly explain this massive consumption). In the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, the U.S. comes first for water consumption, then Canada with 1,600 cubic metres of water per person per year, which is about twice the amount of water used by the average person from France, three times as much as the average German, and almost eight times as much as the average Dane. Since 1980, overall water use in Canada has increased by 25.7%. This is five times higher than the overall OECD increase of 4.5%. In contrast, nine OECD nations were able to decrease their overall water use since 1980 (Sweden, the Netherlands, the United States, the United Kingdom, the Czech Republic, Luxembourg, Poland, Finland and Denmark) [8] [9].

Ninety-five percent of the United States' fresh water is underground. One crucial source is a huge underground reservoir, the 800-mile (1,300 km) Ogallala aquifer which stretches from Texas to South Dakota and waters one fifth of U.S. irrigated land. Formed over millions of years, the Ogallala aquifer has since been cut off from its original natural sources. It is being depleted at a rate of 12 billion cubic metres a year—amounting to a total depletion to date of a volume equal to the annual flow of 18 Colorado Rivers. Some estimates say it will dry up in as little as 25 years. Many farmers in the Texan High Plains, which rely particularly on the underground source, are now turning away from irrigated agriculture as they become aware of the hazards of overpumping [10].

In Mexico City, an estimated 40% of the city's water is lost through leaky pipes built at the turn of the century [11].

Water in the Middle East

Gold water

The Middle East region has only 1% of the world's fresh water, which is shared between 5% of the world's population. Thus, in this region, water is an important strategic resource. By 2025, it is predicted that the countries of the Arabian peninsula will be using more than double the amount of water naturally available to them [12]. According to a report by the Arab League, two-thirds of Arab countries have less than 1,000 cubic meters water per person per year, which is considered the limit [13].

Jordan, for example, has little water and dams in other countries have reduced its available water over the years. The 1994 Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace stated that Israel would give 50 million cubic meters of water per year to Jordan, which it refused to do in 1999 before backtracking. The 1994 treaty stated that the two countries would cooperate in order to allow Jordan better access to water resources, notably through dams on the Yarmouk River [14]. Confronted by this lack of water, Jordan is preparing new techniques to use non conventional water resources, such as second-hand use of irrigation water and desalinization techniques, which are very costly and are not yet used. A desalinization project will soon be started in Hisban, south of Amman. The Disi groundwater project, in the south of Jordan, will cost at least $250 million to bring out water. Along with the Unity Dam on the Yarmouk river, it is one of Jordan's largest strategic projects. Born in 1987, the "Unity Dam" would involve both Jordan and Syria. This "Unity Dam" still hasn't been implemented because of Israel's opposition, Jordan and Syrian conflictual relations and refusal of world investors. However, Jordan's reconciliation with Syria following the death of King Hussein would make the project envisionable again [15].

Both Israel and Jordan rely on the Jordan river, but Israel controls it, as well as 9/10 of the water resources in the region. Water is also an important issue in the conflict with the Palestinians - indeed, according to former Israeli prime minister Ariel Sharon quoted by Abel Darwish in the BBC, it was one of the causes of the 1967 Six-Day War. According to the BBC, "with the Israeli army in control prohibiting Palestinians from pumping water, and settlers using much more advanced pumping equipment, Palestinians complain of "daily theft" of as much as 80% of their underground water" [16]. Israelis in the West Bank use four times as much water as their Palestinian neighbours [17]. According to the World Bank, 90% of the West Bank's water is used by Israelis [15]. Article 40 of the appendix B of the September 28, 1995 Oslo accords stated that "Israel recognizes Palestinians' rights on water in the West Bank".

The Syrian Golan also provides 770 million cubic meters of water per year to Israel, which represents a third of its annual consumption. The Golan's table water goes to the Sea of Galilee, which is Israel's largest reserve, which is afterward redistributed throughout the country by the National Water Carrier. Occupied since 1967, the Golan thus represents for Israel a strategic territory because of its water resources. [15]. However, the level on the Sea of Galilee has dropped over the years, sparking fears that Israel's main water reservoir will become salinated. On its northern border, Israel threatened military action in 2002 when Lebanon opened a new pumping station taking water from a river feeding the Jordan. To help ease the crisis, Israel has agreed to buy water from Turkey and is investigating building desalination plants [18].

On the other hand, Iraq and Syria watched with apprehension the construction of the Atatürk Dam in Turkey and a projected system of 22 dams on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers [19]. According to the BBC, the list of 'water-scarce' countries in the region grew steadily from three in 1955 to eight in 1990 with another seven expected to be added within 20 years, including three Nile nations (the Nile is shared by nine countries).

Water in Asia

A Mountain Stream

In Asia, Vietnam and Cambodia are concerned by China's and Laos' attempts to control the flux of water. China is also preparing the Three Gorges Dam project on the Yangtze River, which would become one of the world's largest dams, causing many social and environmental problems. It also has a project to divert water from the Yangtze to the dwindling Yellow river, which feeds China's most important farming region.

The Ganges is disputed between India and Bangladesh. The water reserves are being quickly depleted and polluted, while the glacier feeding the sacred Hindu river is retreating hundreds of feet each year because of global warming and deforestation in the Himalayas causing subsoil streams flowing into the Ganges river to dry up. Downstream, India controls the flow to Bangladesh with the Farakka Barrage, 10 km on the Indian side of the border. Until the late 1990s, India used the barrage to divert the river to Calcutta to stop the city's port drying up during the dry season. This denied Bangladeshi farmers water and silt, and left the Sundarban wetlands and mangrove forests at the river's delta seriously threatened. The two countries have now signed an agreement to share the water more equally. Water quality, however, remains a huge problem, with high levels of arsenic and untreated sewage in the river water [20].

Privatisation of water companies

Privatisation of water companies has been contested on several occasions, due to bad quality of the water, increasing prices, etc. In Bolivia for example, the proposed privatization of water companies by the IMF were met by popular protests in Cochabamba in 2000, which ousted Bechtel, an American engineering firm based in San Francisco. SUEZ has started retreating from South America, due to similar protests (in Buenos Aires in Argentina, as well as in Santa Fe; in Córdoba, consumers took to the streets to protest water rate hikes of as much as 500 percent mandated by Suez). In South and Central America, Suez has water concessions in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil and Mexico. "Bolivian officials fault Suez for not connecting enough households to water lines as mandated by its contract and for charging as much as $455 a connection, or about three times the average monthly salary of an office clerk", according to the Mercury News [21]. South Africa also made moves to privatize water, provoking an outbreak of cholera killing 200 [22].

Regulating water distribution

Drinking water is often collected at springs, extracted from artificial borings in the ground, or wells. Building more wells in adequate places is thus a possible way to produce more water assuming the aquifers can supply an adequate flow. Other water sources are rainwater and river or lake water. This surface water, however, must be purified for human consumption. This may involve removal of undissolved substances, dissolved substances and harmful microbes. Popular methods are filtering with sand which only removes undissolved material while chlorination and boiling kill harmful microbes. Distillation does all three functions. More advanced techniques exist, such as reverse osmosis. Desalination of abundant ocean or seawater is a more expensive solution used in coastal arid climates.

The distribution of drinking water is done through municipal water systems or as bottled water. Governments in many countries have programs to distribute water to the needy at no charge. Others argue that the market mechanism and free enterprise are best to manage this rare resource, and to finance the boring of wells or the construction of dams and reservoirs.

Reducing waste, that is using drinking water only for human consumption, is another option. In some cities, such as Hong Kong, sea water is extensively used for flushing toilets citywide in order to conserve fresh water resources. Polluting water may be the biggest single misuse of water; to the extent that a pollutant limits other uses of the water, it becomes a waste of the resource, regardless of benefits to the pollutor. As other types of pollution, this doesn't enter standard accounting of market costs, being conceived as externalities for which the market can't account for. Thus other people pay the price of this water pollution, while the private firms' profits are not redistributed to the local population victim of this pollution. Pharmaceuticals consumed by humans often end up in the waterways and can have detrimental effects on aquatic life if they bioaccumulate and if they are not biodegradable.

The impact of water on religion and philosophy

The proverbial glass half empty/full.

Water is considered a purifier in most religions, including Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Shinto. For instance, baptism in Christian churches is done with water. In addition, a ritual bath in pure water is performed for the dead in many religions including Judaism and Islam. In Islam, the five daily prayers can only be done after completing washing the body with clean water (wudu). In Shinto, water is used in almost all rituals to cleanse a person or an area. Water is mentioned in the Bible 442 times in the New International Version and 363 times in the King James Version. 2 Peter 3:5(b) states: ..."the earth was formed out of water and by water." (NIV)

Water is often believed to have spiritual powers. In Celtic mythology, Sulis is the local goddess of thermal springs; in Hinduism, the Ganga is also personified as a goddess, while Saraswati have been referred to as goddess in Vedas. Also water is one of the "panch-tatva"s (basic 5 elements, others including Fire, Earth, Space, Air). Alternatively, gods can be patrons of particular springs, river or lakes: for example in Greek and Roman mythology, Peneus was a river god, one of the three thousand Oceanids.

The Greek philosopher Empedocles held that water is one of the four classical elements along with fire, earth and air, and was regarded as the ylem, or basic stuff of the universe. Water was considered cold and moist. In the theory of the four bodily humours, water was associated with phlegm. Water was also one of the Five Elements in traditional Chinese philosophy, along with earth, fire, wood, and metal.

Water can also come in many different colours, such as red, green, purple, brown, blue, grey, black, and it can also smell like cheese.

Notes

  1. ^ The Color of Water: Visibility Under Water
  2. ^ G8 "Action plan" decided upon at the 2003 Evian summit
  3. ^ "Discover of Water Vapor Near Orion Nebula Suggests Possible Origin of H20 in Solar System". The Harvard University Gazette. April 23, 1998.
  4. ^ "Drink at least eight glasses of water a day." Really? Is there scientific evidence for "8 × 8"? by Heinz Valdin, Department of Physiology, Dartmouth Medical School, Lebanon, New Hampshire
  5. ^ Drinking Water - How Much?, Factsmart.org web site and references within
  6. ^ Dietary Reference Intakes: Water, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulfate, Food and Nutrition Board
  7. ^ A Chronology of Water-Related Conflicts
  8. ^ Water consumption indicator in the OECD countries
  9. ^ "Golf 'is water hazard'". BBC News. March 17, 2003.
  10. ^ "Ogallala aquifer - Water hot spots". BBC News. ?. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  11. ^ "Mexico City - Water hot spots". BBC News. ?. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ^ "Water shortages 'foster terrorism'". BBC News. March 18, 2003.
  13. ^ "Major aspects of scarce water resources management with reference to the Arab countries", Arab League report published for the International Conference on water gestion and water politics in arid zones, in Amman, Jordan, December 1-3, 1999. Quoted by French journalist Christian Chesnot in "Drought in the Middle East". Monde diplomatique. February 2000. - French original version freely available here. Compare with the 1,600 cubic meters of water used per person and per year in Canada, for example
  14. ^ See 1994 Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace, annex II, article II, first paragraph
  15. ^ a b c See Christian Chesnot in "Drought in the Middle East". Monde diplomatique. February 2000. - French original version freely available here.
  16. ^ "Analysis: Middle East water wars, by Abel Darwish". BBC News. May 30, 2003.
  17. ^ "Israel - water hot spots". BBC News. ?. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  18. ^ "Israel - water hot spots". BBC News. ?. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  19. ^ "Turkey - water hot spots". BBC News. ?. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  20. ^ "Ganges river - water hot spots". BBC News. ?. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. ^ "Bolivia's water wars coming to end under Morales". Mercury News. February 26, 2006.
  22. ^ "Water privatisation: ask the experts". BBC News. December 10, 2004.

See also

Two people reflected in the water of a fish pond

References

  • OA Jones, JN Lester and N Voulvoulis, Pharmaceuticals: a threat to drinking water? TRENDS in Biotechnology 23(4): 163, 2005
  • Franks, F (Ed), Water, A comprehensive treatise, Plenum Press, New York, 1972-1982
  • Property of Water and Water Steam w Thermodynamic Surface
  • PH Gleick and associates, The World's Water: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources. Island Press, Washington, D.C. (published every two years, beginning in 1998.)

Water as a natural resource

  • Gleick, Peter H. The World's Water: The Biennial Report on Freshwater Resources. Washington: Island Press. (Produced every two years; data available here)
  • Postel, Sandra (1997, second edition). Last Oasis: Facing Water Scarcity. New York: Norton Press. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)
  • Anderson (1991). Water Rights: Scarce Resource Allocation, Bureaucracy, and the Environment.
  • Marq de Villiers (2003, revised edition). Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious Resource. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)
  • Diane Raines Ward (2002). Water Wars: Drought, Flood, Folly and the Politics of Thirst.
  • Miriam R. Lowi (1995). Water and Power: The Politics of a Scarce Resource in the Jordan River Basin. (Cambridge Middle East Library)
  • Worster, Donald (1992). Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West.
  • Reisner, Marc (1993). Cadillac Desert: The American West and Its Disappearing Water.
  • Maude Barlow, Tony Clarke (2003). Blue Gold: The Fight to Stop the Corporate Theft of the World's Water.
  • Vandana Shiva (2002). Water Wars: Privatization, Pollution, and Profit. ISBN 0745318371.
  • Anita Roddick; et al. (2004). Troubled Water: Saints, Sinners, Truth And Lies About The Global Water Crisis. {{cite book}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to water.
Look up water in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

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