Photovoltaics

Photovoltaic 'tree' in Styria, Austria

The CIS Tower, Manchester, England, was clad in PV panels at a cost of £5.5 million. It started feeding electricity to the national grid in November 2005.

Photovoltaics, or PV for short, is a solar power technology that uses solar cells or solar photovoltaic arrays to convert light from the sun into electricity. Photovoltaics is also the field of study relating to this technology and there are many research institutes devoted to work on photovoltaics. The manufacture of photovoltaic cells has expanded in recent years, and major photovoltaic companies include BP Solar, Isofoton, Mitsubishi Electric, Sanyo, SolarWorld, SunPower, and Suntech. Total peak power of installed solar PV arrays was around 5,300 MW as of the end of 2005 and most of this consisted of grid-connected applications. Such installations may be ground-mounted (and sometimes integrated with farming and grazing) or building integrated. Financial incentives, such as preferential feed-in tariffs for solar-generated electricity, have supported solar PV installations in many countries including Germany, Japan, and the United States.

Current development

Photovoltaic cells produce electricity directly from sunlight

Average solar irradiance, watts per square metre. Note that this is for a horizontal surface, whereas solar panels are normally propped up at an angle which does not cause them to receive any more energy per unit area only a greater percentage of the maximum limited by solar irradiance.

Map of solar electricity potential in Europe

Photovoltaics, or PV for short, is a technology in which light is converted into electrical power. It is best known as a method for generating solar power by using solar cells or solar photovoltaic arrays to convert energy from the sun into electricity.

A less common form of the technologies is thermophotovoltaics, in which the thermal radiation from some hot body other than the sun is utilized. Photovoltaic devices are also used to produce electricity in optical wireless power transmission. Photovoltaics can refer to the field of study relating to this technology, and the term photovoltaic denotes the unbiased operating mode of a photodiode in which current through the device is entirely due to the transduced light energy. Virtually all photovoltaic devices are some type of photodiode.

Solar cells produce direct current electricity from the sun’s rays, which can be used to power equipment or to recharge a battery. Many pocket calculators incorporate a solar cell. When more power is required than a single cell can deliver, cells are generally grouped together to form “PV modules”, or solar panels, that may in turn be arranged in arrays. Such solar arrays have been used to power orbiting satellites and other spacecraft and in remote areas as a source of power for applications such as roadside emergency telephones, remote sensing, and cathodic protection of pipelines. The continual decline of manufacturing costs (dropping at 3 to 5% a year in recent years) is expanding the range of cost-effective uses including roadsigns, home power generation and even grid-connected electricity generation.

Many corporations and institutions are currently developing ways to increase the practicality of solar power. While private companies (such as BP Solar) conduct much of the research and development on solar energy, colleges and universities also work on solar-powered devices. There is considerable work being carried out in the area of Photovoltaic and renewable energy engineering in Australia.

The most important issue with solar panels is cost. Because of much increased demand, the price of silicon used for most panels is now experiencing upward pressure. This has caused developers to start using other materials and thinner silicon to keep cost down (see, for example, the work of Professor Andrew Blakers). Due to economies of scale solar panels get less costly as people use and buy more — as manufacturers increase production, the cost is expected to continue to drop in the years to come. As of early 2006, from http://www.solarpowerfor.us/solar-photovoltaic-panels.html, the average cost per installed watt for a residential sized system was about USD 6.50 to USD 7.50, including panels, inverters, mounts, and electrical items.

Grid-tied systems represented the largest growth area. In the USA, with incentives from state governments, power companies and (in 2006 and 2007) from the federal government, growth is expected to climb. Net metering programs are one type of incentive driving growth in solar panel use. Net metering allows electricity customers to get credit for any extra power they send back into the grid. This causes an interesting role reversal, as the utility company becomes the buyer, and the solar panel owner becomes the seller of electricity. To spur growth of their renewable energy market, Germany has adopted an extreme form of net metering, whereby customers get paid 8 times what the power company charges them for any surplus they supply back to the grid. That large premium has created huge demand for solar panels in that country.

At the end of 2006, the Ontario Power Authority (Canada) began its Standard Offer Program (http://www.powerauthority.on.ca/sop/), the first in North America for small renewable projects (10MW or less). This guarantees a fixed price of $0.42 CDN per kWh for PV and $0.11 CDN per kWh for other sources (i.e., wind, biomass, hydro) over a period of twenty years. Unlike net metering, all the electricity produced is sold to the OPA at the SOP rate. The generator then purchases any needed electricity at the current prevailing rate (e.g., $0.055 per kWh). The difference should cover all the costs of installation and operation over the life of the contract.

Worldwide installed photovoltaic totals

Total peak power of installed solar panels is around 5,300 MW as of the end of 2005. (IEA statistics appear to be under-reported: they report 2,600 MW as of 2004, which with 1,700 installed in 2005 would be a cumulative total of 4,300 for 2005.) The three leading countries (Japan, Germany and the USA) represent 90% of the total worldwide PV installations.

Note that solar photovoltaic arrays have capacity factors of around 20%, which is lower than many other industrial sources of electricity. Therefore the 2005 installed base peak output would have provided an average output of something like 1,060 MW (20% × 5,300). This represented 0.03 percent of global demand at the time.

Germany was the fastest growing major PV market in the world in 2005. In 2005, 837 Megawatts of PV were installed. The German PV industry generates over 10,000 jobs in production, distribution and installation. Over 90% of solar PV installations are in grid-tied applications in Germany. The balance is off-grid (or stand alone) systems.

A view of the deployments of solar power of all types is given at Deployment of solar power to energy grids.

Installed PV Power as of the end of 2005

Country	PV Capacity
	Cumulative			Installed in 2005
	Off-grid PV [kW]	Grid-connected [kW]	Total [kW]	Total [kW]	Grid-tied [kW]
Japan	87,057	1,334,851	1,421,908	289,917	287,105
Germany	29,000	1,400,000	1,429,000	635,000	632,000
United States	233,000	246,000	479,000	103,000	70,000
Australia	41,841	8,740	60,581	8,280	1,980
Spain	15,800	41,600	57,400	20,400	18,600
Netherlands	4,919	45,857	50,776	1,697	1,547
Italy	12,300	15,200	37,500*	6,800	6,500

* Original source gives these individual numbers and totals them to 37,500 KW. The 2004 reported total was 30,700 KW. With new installations of 6,800 KW, this would give the reported 37,500 KW.

PV power stations

The Table below provides details of the largest photovoltaic plants in the world. As shown, Germany has a 10 MW photovoltaic system in Pocking, and a 12 MW plant in Gut Erlasse, with a 40 MW power station planned for Muldentalkreis. Portugal has an 11 MW plant in Serpa and a 52 MW power station is planned for Moura. A 20 MW power plant is also planned for Beneixama, Spain. The photovoltaic power station proposed for Australia will use heliostat concentrator technology and will not come into service until 2010. It is expected to have a capacity of 154 MW when it is completed in 2013.[1]. Abu Dhabi recently announced plans for a a 100MW PV plant [2] to support the 'Masdar' low carbon city project.

For comparison, the largest non-photovoltaic solar plant, the solar trough or concentrator solar power (CSP)-based SEGS in California has an installed capacity of 350 MW. The largest nuclear power stations generate more than 1,000 MW.

World's largest PV power plants

DC Peak Power	Location	Description	MW·h/year	Coordinates
154 MW**	Mildura/Swan Hill, Australia	Heliostat Concentrator Photovoltaic technology (see Solar power station in Victoria)	n.a.	n.a.
52 MW**	Moura, Portugal	n.a.	n.a.	n.a.
40 MW*	Muldentalkreis, Germany	550,000 thin-film modules (First Solar) (see Waldpolenz Solar Park)	40,000 MW·h	51°19′43″N 12°39′20″E
20 MW**	Beneixama, Spain	Tenesol, Aleo and Solon solar modules with Q-Cells cells	30,000 MW·h	38°43′26″N 0°43′48″W
12 MW	Gut Erlasee, Germany	1408 SOLON mover (see Erlasee Solar Park)	14,000 MW·h	n.a.
11 MW	Serpa, Portugal	52,000 solar modules (see Serpa solar power plant)	n.a.	n.a.
10 MW	Pocking, Germany	57,912 solar modules (see Pocking Solar Park)	11,500 MW·h	n.a.
9.5 MW	Milagro, Spain	see Monte Alto photovoltaic power plant	14,000 MW·h	n.a.
6.3 MW	Mühlhausen, Germany	57,600 solar modules	6,750 MW·h	49°09′29″N 11°25′59″E
5.2 MW	Kameyama, Japan	47,000 square meters on Sharp LCD factory roof	n.a.	34°52′15″N 136°24′19″E
5 MW	Bürstadt, Germany	30,000 BP solar modules	4,200 MW·h	n.a.
5 MW	Espenhain, Germany	33,500 Shell solar modules	5,000 MW·h	n.a.
4.59 MW	Springerville, AZ, USA	34,980 BP solar modules	7,750 MW·h	34°17′48″N 109°16′2″W
4 MW	Geiseltalsee, Merseburg, Germany	25,000 BP solar modules	3,400 MW·h	n.a.
4 MW	Gottelborn, Germany	50,000 solar modules (when completed)	8,200 MW·h (when completed)	n.a.
4 MW	Hemau, Germany	32,740 solar modules	3,900 MW·h	n.a.
3.9 MW	Rancho Seco, CA, USA	n.a.	n.a.	38°20′31″N 121°07′1″W
3.3 MW	Dingolfing, Germany	Solara, Sharp and Kyocera solar modules	3,050 MW·h	n.a.
3.3 MW	Serre, Italy	60,000 solar modules	n.a.	n.a.

* Project finish date: 2009

** Under construction, as of spring 2007

PV in buildings

File:BIPVGTUICC EMS.jpg

Installed in 1984, $60,000 of electricity is generated annually from this BIPV installation at Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.

Main article: Building-integrated photovoltaic

Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are increasingly incorporated into new domestic and industrial buildings as a principal or ancillary source of electrical power, and are one of the fastest growing segments of the photovoltaic industry. Typically, an array is incorporated into the roof or walls of a building, and roof tiles with integrated PV cells can now be purchased. Arrays can also be retrofitted into existing buildings; in this case they are usually fitted on top of the existing roof structure. Alternatively, an array can be located separately from the building but connected by cable to supply power for the building.

Where a building is at a considerable distance from the public electricity supply (or grid) - in remote or mountainous areas – PV may be the preferred possibility for generating electricity, or PV may be used together with wind, diesel generators and/or hydroelectric power. In such off-grid circumstances batteries are usually used to store the electric power.

PV power costs

The PV industry is beginning to adopt levelized cost of energy as the unit of cost. The results of a sample calculation can be found on pp52, 53 of the 2007 DOE report describing the plans for solar power 2007-2011 [3]. For a 10MW plant in Phoenix, AZ, the LCOE is estimated at $0.15 to 0.22/kWh.

The table below is a pure mathematical calculation. It illustrates the calculated total cost in US cents per kWh of electricity generated by a photovoltaic system as function of the investment cost and the efficiency, assuming some accounting parameters such as cost of capital and depreciation period. The row headings on the left show the total cost, per peak kilowatt (kW_p), of a photovoltaic installation. The column headings across the top refer to the annual energy output in kWh expected from each installed kW_p. This varies by geographic region because the average insolation depends on the average cloudiness and the thickness of atmosphere traversed by the sunlight. It also depends on the path of the sun relative to the panel and the horizon.

Panels are usually mounted at an angle based on latitude, and often they are adjusted seasonally to meet the changing solar declination. Solar tracking can also be utilized to access even more perpendicular sunlight, thereby raising the total energy output. The calculated values in the table reflect the total cost in cents per kWh produced. They assume a 10% total capital cost (for instance 4% interest rate, 1% operating and maintenance cost, and depreciation of the capital outlay over 20 years). (Normally, photovoltaic modules have a 25 year warranty, but they should be fully functional even after 30-40 years.)

20 years	2400 kWh/kWp y	2200 kWh/kWp y	2000 kWh/kWp y	1800 kWh/kWp y	1600 kWh/kWp y	1400 kWh/kWp y	1200 kWh/kWp y	1000 kWh/kWp y	800 kWh/kWp y
200 $/kWp	0.8	0.9	1.0	1.1	1.3	1.4	1.7	2.0	2.5
600 $/kWp	2.5	2.7	3.0	3.3	3.8	4.3	5.0	6.0	7.5
1000 $/kWp	4.2	4.5	5.0	5.6	6.3	7.1	8.3	10.0	12.5
1400 $/kWp	5.8	6.4	7.0	7.8	8.8	10.0	11.7	14.0	17.5
1800 $/kWp	7.5	8.2	9.0	10.0	11.3	12.9	15.0	18.0	22.5
2200 $/kWp	9.2	10.0	11.0	12.2	13.8	15.7	18.3	22.0	27.5
2600 $/kWp	10.8	11.8	13.0	14.4	16.3	18.6	21.7	26.0	32.5
3000 $/kWp	12.5	13.6	15.0	16.7	18.8	21.4	25.0	30.0	37.5
3400 $/kWp	14.2	15.5	17.0	18.9	21.3	24.3	28.3	34.0	42.5
3800 $/kWp	15.8	17.3	19.0	21.1	23.8	27.1	31.7	38.0	47.5
4200 $/kWp	17.5	19.1	21.0	23.3	26.3	30.0	35.0	42.0	52.5
4600 $/kWp	19.2	20.9	23.0	25.6	28.8	32.9	38.3	46.0	57.5
5000 $/kWp	20.8	22.7	25.0	27.8	31.3	35.7	41.7	50.0	62.5

Kilowatt-hours per peak kilowatts per year at various locations:

Environmental impacts

Unlike fossil fuel based technologies, solar power does not lead to any harmful emissions during operation, but the production of the panels leads to some amount of pollution. Also, placement of photovoltaics affects the environment, if they are places where photosynthesizing plants would normally grow, they simply substitute one potential renewable resource (biomass) for another. However, if they are placed on the sides of buildings (such as in Manchester) or fences, or rooftops (as long as plants would not normally be placed there) they are purely additive to the renewable power base.

Greenhouse gases

Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions are now in the range of 25-32 g/kWh and this could decrease to 15 g/kWh in the future. For comparison, a combined cycle gas-fired power plant emits some 400 g/kWh and a coal-fired power plant with Carbon capture and storage some 200 g/kWh. Nuclear power emits 25 g/kWh on average; only wind power is better with a mere 11 g/kWh.

Cadmium

One issue that has often raised concerns is the use of cadmium in Cadmium telluride (CdTe) modules (not all PV technologies use CdTe). Cadmium in its metallic form is a toxic substance that has the tendency to accumulate in ecological food chains. The amount of cadmium used in PV modules is relatively small (5-10 g/m2) and with proper emission control techniques in place the cadmium emissions from module production can be almost zero. Current PV technologies lead to cadmium emissions of 0.3-0.9 microgram/kWh over the whole life-cycle. Most of these emissions actually arise through the use of coal power for the manufacturing of the modules, and coal and lignite combustion leads to much higher emissions of cadmium. Life-cycle cadmium emissions from coal is 3.1 microgram/kWh, lignite 6.2, and natural gas 0.2 microgram/kWh.

Energy return on investment

A key indicator of environmental performance is the ratio of electricity generated divided by the energy required to build and maintain the equipment. Of course, little is gained if it takes as much energy to produce the modules as they produce in their lifetimes. This ratio is called the energy return on investment (EROI) This should not be confused with the economic return on investment, which varies according to local energy prices, subsidies available and metering techniques. A related concept is the energy pay-back time, i.e. the time required to produce an amount of energy as great as what was consumed during production.

Crystalline silicon PV systems presently have energy pay-back times of 1.5-2 years for South-European locations and 2.7-3.5 years for Middle-European locations. For silicon technology clear prospects for a reduction of energy input exist, and an energy pay-back of 1 year may be possible within a few years. Thin film technologies now have energy pay-back times in the range of 1-1.5 years (S.Europe). With lifetimes of such systems of at least 30 years, the EROI is in the range of 10 to 30.

Alternative methods of calculating the EROI of photovoltaics attempt to account for the full spectrum of energy inputs.[4] Traditional EROI calculations only include direct energy inputs -- for example, the energy used at the manufacturing plant to produce the panels, and the energy required by machinery used to mine and refine silicon. These calculations, however, neglect to include the infinite regression of energy inputs required to support those functions -- for example, the energy required to sustain the human labor at every point in the supply chain, energy required to manufacture the machines used to manufacture photovoltaics, etc. The alternate "price-estimated EROI" method attempts to account for this infinite regression of energy inputs with the hypothesis that the market price of photovoltaics best captures the totality of energy inputs to PV production, and that this price value can be compared to the value of the produced electricity to arrive at an EROI ratio. This method of EROI calculation has its own inherent problems--including discrepancies caused by subsidies and locally variable costs--but has the theoretical advantage of accounting for the full spectrum of energy inputs. Price-estimated EROI theory produces a much more pessimistic lifecycle EROI ratio of approximately 1:1 for the most advanced PV currently available to consumers.

Grid parity

Grid parity is already reached in some regions. This means photovoltaic power is equal to or cheaper than grid power. Grid parity has been reached in Hawaii and many other islands that use diesel fuel to produce electricity.

In Italy PV power is cheaper than retail grid electricity since 2006. One kWh costs 21.08  €cents. Italy has an average of 1,600 kWh/m² (Sicily even 1,800 kWh/m²) sun power/year. At 4 % costs of capital, 25 years of depreciation and costs (including installation) of 4,600 €/kW_p PV current costs are 20.91 €-cent/kWh. At large scale plants with 3,900 €/kW_p the costs reduces to 17.75 €-cent/kWh and is 15 % cheaper. To reach a 19% PV power coverage in Italy, 34,000 MW_p power must be installed. This means 0.09 % of the size of Italy. 9 % of the size of Sicily could produce 25 % of the power of the complete European Union (ca. 2,100 TWh/year).

Financial incentives

The political purpose of incentive policies for PV is to grow the industry even where the cost of PV is significantly above grid parity, to allow it to achieve the economies of scale necessary to reach grid parity. The policies are implemented to promote national energy independence, high tech job creation and reduction of CO₂ emissions

Two incentive mechanisms are used:

• investment subsidies: the authorities refund part of the cost of installation of the system,
• feed-in tariffs/net metering: the electricity utility buys PV electricity from the producer under a multiyear contract at a guaranteed rate.

With investment subsidies, the financial burden falls upon the taxpayer, while with feed-in tariffs the extra cost is distributed across the utilities' customer bases. While the investment subsidy may be simpler to administer, the main argument in favour of feed-in tariffs is the encouragement of quality. Investment subsidies are paid out as a function of the nameplate capacity of the installed system and are independent of its actual power yield over time, so reward overstatement of power, and tolerate poor durability and maintenance. Feed-in tariffs reward the number of kilowatt-hours produced over a long period of time.

The price paid per kWh under a feed-in tariff exceeds the price of grid electricity. "Net metering" refers to the case where the price paid by the utility is the same as the price charged.

The Japanese government through its Ministry of International Trade and Industry ran a successful programme of subsidies from 1994 to 2003. By the end of 2004, Japan led the world in installed PV capacity with over 1.1 GW.[5]

In 2004, the German government introduced the first large-scale feed-in tariff system, under a law known as the 'EEG' (see below) which resulted in explosive growth of PV installations in Germany. The principle behind the German system is a 20 year flat rate contract. The value of new contracts is programmed to decrease each year, in order to encourage the industry to pass on lower costs to the end users.

Subsequently Spain, Italy, Greece and France introduced feed-in tariffs. None have replicated the programmed decrease of FIT in new contracts though, making the German incentive relatively less and less attractive compared to other countries. The French FIT offers a uniquely high premium for building integrated systems.

In 2006 California approved the 'California Solar Initiative', offering a choice of investment subsidies or FIT for small and medium systems and a FIT for large systems. The small-system FIT of $0.39 per kWh (far less than EU countries) expires in just 5 years, and the residential investment incentive is overwhelmed by a newly required time-of-use tariff, with a net cost increase to new systems. All California incentives are scheduled to decrease in the future depending as a function of the amount of PV capacity installed.

The price/kWh or kWp of the FIT or investment subsidies in stimulating the installation of PV is only one of three factors. The other two are insolation (the more sunshine, the less money is needed) and administrative ease of obtaining permits and contracts (Southern European countries are reputedly relatively complex)

The most significant incentives programs are listed here.

Canada

Ontario

Situation as of 2007

Ontario Power Authority (OPA) Standard Offer Program (SOP). For renewable generation capacity of 10 MW or less, connected at 50 kV or less.

Feed-in Tariffs:

• Solar Photovoltaic: $0.42/kWh CDN
• Wind, Hydro, Biomass: $0.11/kWh CDN

Contract duration 20 years, constant remuneration. All power produced is sold to the OPA. Generator then purchases back what is needed at prevailing rate (e.g., $0.055/kWh CDN). The difference should cover costs of installation and operation over the life of the contract (perhaps with some profit).

France

Situation as of 2006. [6]

Legal basis: Arrêté du 10 juillet 2006

Feed-in Tariffs (mainland, excluding DOM-TOMs):

• EUR 0.30/kWh
• Roof-integrated EUR 0.55/kWh

Contract duration 20 years, linked to inflation.

Additional investment subsidies available as tax credits.

Germany

Situation as of 2007. [7]

The legal framework is the German Renewable Energy Sources Act (Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz – EEG), [8] amended version in force since 1 August 2004.

Feed-in Tariffs:

• Roof-mounted ≤ 30 kWp : EUR 0.4921/kWh
• Roof-mounted 30 kWp to 100kWp: EUR 0.4681/kWh
• Roof-mounted over 100kWp: EUR 0.4630/kWh
• Facade-integrated as above + EUR 0.0500/kWh
• Field installation EUR 0.3796/kWh

Contract duration 20 years, constant remuneration. New contracts will be 5% lower in value in 2008 (6.5% for field installations)

Greece

Situation as of 2006. [9]

Feed-in Tariffs:

• Mainland ≤ 100 kWp 0.45 €/kWh
• Mainland > 100 kWp 0.40 €/kWh
• Islands ≤ 100 kWp 0.50 €/kWh
• Islands > 100 kWp 0.45 €/kWh

Contract duration 20 years, linked to inflation

Investment subsidies: Tax rebates and grants are available

Italy

As of March 2007.[10]

The Ministry for Industry issued a decree on 5th August 2005 that provides the legal framework for the system known as "Conto Energia" The latest version is the decree of 19 Feb 2007 English translation

Feed-in Tariffs (EUR/kWh)

System size (kWp)	Free-standing	Semi-integrated	Integrated
1 to 3	0.40	0.44	0.49
3 to 20	0.38	0.42	0.46
>20	0.36	0.40	0.44

Contract duration 20 years, constant remuneration. Tarifs for new contacts will be decreased by 2% each calendar year

South Korea

Situation as of Oct 11 2006.

Feed-in Tariffs:

• Systems >30 kWp: KRW677.38/kWh
• Systems <30 kWp: KRW711.25/kWh (ca $0.75, €0.60)

Additional subsidies available.

Contract duration 15 years, constant remuneration

Spain

Situation as of 2006.

The legal framework is the Real Decreto (royal decree) 436/2004 modified by Real Decreto 1634/2006. As of 29 April 2007 the Spanish legislation is expected to change shortly, maybe substantially

Feed-in Tariff:

first 25 years:

• <= 100 kWp: 575% of the TMR = 0.4404 EUR/kWh
• > 100 kWp: 300% of the TMR = 0.2289 EUR/kWh

after 25 years:

• <= 100 kWp: 460% of the TMR = 0.3523 EUR/kWh
• > 100 kWp: 240% of the TMR = 0.1838 EUR/kWh

TMR: Reference Mean Tariff (Tarifa Media de Referencia) TMR as at 2006 = 0.076588 EUR/kWh. A new TMR is fixed by the government each year [11] in spanish

United Kingdom

Situation as of 2006. A grant system for installation has been operated by the Energy Saving Trust. Tariffs for electricity sale and purchase are determined by individual electricity companies in a free-market situation, where consumers may choose their electricity supplier. There is no standard feed-in tariff.

United States

Federal

Federal tax credits of 30% limited to only $2000 for residential systems, and expires December 2007. Details of this and state incentives are summarized at DSIRE. Legislation currently under consideration in Congress: “Securing America's Energy Independence Act of 2007.” Full text at HR550, S. 590 . These multifaceted energy bills would extend investment tax credits.

California

Starting 1 Jan 2007[12]

Administrative basis: California Public Utilities Commission (PUC) decision of Aug. 24, 2006

Feed-in Tariffs and Investment subsidies :

• Systems >100 kWp: $0.39/kWh
• Systems <100 kWp can choose either $2.50/Wp or $0.39/kWh

Contract duration 5 years, constant remuneration

Photovoltaics companies

The photovoltaic industry has several significant elements in the value chain.

• silicon
• wafer
• cell
• module
• installation
• operation

(in the case of thin film cell and module manufacture may be simultaneous)

Most companies act in only some steps. A selection of the largest pure play PV companies can found at Photon magazine

BP Solar

BP has been involved in solar power since 1973 and its subsidiary, BP Solar, is now one of the world's largest solar power companies with production facilities in the United States, Spain, India and Australia, employing a workforce of over 2,000 people worldwide. BP solar is a major worldwide manufacturer and installer of photovoltaic solar cells for electricity.

The company has begun constructing two new solar photovoltaic (PV) solar cell manufacturing plants, one at its European headquarters in Tres Cantos, Madrid, and the second at its joint venture facility, Tata BP Solar, in Bangalore, India.

Kyocera

Kyocera Corporation has announced a plan to increase its solar cell production to 500 MW per year in 2010. 500 MW is about three times the current output of 180 MW, and the company will reinforce production bases in Japan, the US, Europe and China, investing a total of about ¥30 billion through FY2010. Through this production enhancement, Kyocera looks to meet increasing demand across the world for solar cells.

Q-Cells

is the world's second largest cell manufacturer, based in Thalheim, Germany
http://www.qcells.de

Renewable Energy Corp.

is based in Norway, integrated from silicon manufacture to module manufacture
http://www.recgroup.com/

Sharp

is the world's largest photovoltaic module and cell manufacturer. Manufactures in Japan, and near Wrexham, UK.

SolarWorld

is headquartered in Bonn. Shot to prominence with the purchase of Shell Solar's crystalline silicon activities in 2006.
http://www.solarworld.de/

Suntech Power

based in Wuxi, China

Other companies

Other major solar photovoltaic companies include Mitsubishi Electric, SunPower, Schott Solar, and Sanyo.

Photovoltaic Industry Associations

• SEIA: Solar Energy Industries Association US trade association of solar energy manufacturers, dealers, distributors, contractors
• EPIA: European Photovoltaic Industry association
• JPEA: Japanese Photovoltaic Energy Association in Japanese only
• BSW: German Solar Industry Associationin German, with English summary
• ASIF: Spanish PV Industry Associationin Spanish only

Photovoltaics research institutes

There are many research institutions and departments at universities around the world who are active in photovoltaics research. Countries which are particularly active include Germany, Spain, Japan, Australia, China, and the USA.

Some universities and institutes which have a photovoltaics research department.

• National Renewable Energy Laboratory NREL
• Institut für Solare Energiesysteme ISE at the Fraunhofer Institute
• Imperial College London: Experimental Solid State Physics
• Instituto de Energía Solar, at Universidad Politécnica de Madrid
• Centre for Renewable Energy Systems Technology, at Loughborough University
• School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering at The University of New South Wales
• Centre for Sustainable Energy Systems at the Australian National University
• Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne Prof. Graetzel invented dye sensitized cells here
• Advanced Energy Systems at Helsinki University of Technology
• The Centre for Electronic Devices and Materials at Sheffield Hallam University
• The Solar Caliometry Lab at Queen's University
• Energy & Environmental Technology Application Center at the College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering SUNY at Albany
• Institute of microtechnology at University of Neuchatel Switzerland
• University of Konstanz
• Arizona State University Photovoltaic Testing Laboratory
• Institute of Energy Conversion at University of Delaware
• World Alliance for Decentralized Energy

Photovoltaics in Fashion

• LOSTVALUES - wearable photovoltaics by Elena Corchero

External links

• How Stuff Works: Solar cells.
• Energy Atlas of the West
• World's largest photovoltaic power plants
• World’s largest solar power plant being built in eastern Germany
• Global Solar Completed 1.4 MW Solar Power Station; Signs Agreement to Enlarge System to 2.4 MW
• Solarbuzz
• Trends in photovoltaic applications in selected IEA countries between 1992 and 2004
• Information pertaining to photovoltaic solar electricity in each of the IEA PVPS member countries
• Photon Magazine International PV magazine, also has local editions for Germany and Spain
• Renewable Energy World magazine covers PV among other forms of renewable energy
• Home Power Magazine
• Power Consumption of a Home
• US Department of Energy Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
• DSIRE Listing of US state, local, utility, and federal incentives for renewable energy and energy efficiency.
• Plastic solar panels reach 6% efficiency

See also

• Active solar
• Deployment of solar power to energy grids
• Green technology
• High efficiency solar cells
• Microgeneration
• Photoelectrochemical cell
• Photovoltaic and renewable energy engineering in Australia
• Photovoltaic components, projects and howtos
• Renewable energy
• Solar car
• Solar thermal
• Solar power
• Solar cell
• Solar panel
• Solar splash