Ceratosaurus

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Ceratosaurus
Skeleton cast of a cub at the Dinosaur Discovery Museum in Wisconsin

Skeleton cast of a cub at the Dinosaur Discovery Museum in Wisconsin

Temporal occurrence
Upper Jurassic ( Kimmeridgian to early Tithonian )
157.3 to 147.7 million years
Locations
Systematics
Dinosaur (dinosauria)
Lizard dinosaur (Saurischia)
Theropoda
Ceratosauria
Ceratosaurus
Scientific name
Ceratosaurus
Marsh , 1884
species
  • Ceratosaurus nasicornis
  • Ceratosaurus dentisulcatus (?)
  • Ceratosaurus magnicornis (?)
Artistic reconstruction of life
Ceratosaurus skull
Historical skeleton reconstruction by Othniel Charles Marsh, first published in 1892.
Historical life reconstruction by T. Smit, published in 1911.
Historical life reconstruction drawn by JM Gleeson under the guidance of Charles R. Knight and published in 1901.
Holotype specimen of Ceratosaurus on display at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, DC

Ceratosaurus ("horned lizard") is a genus of theropod dinosaur from the Upper Jurassic of North America and Europe. Characteristic of this two-legged carnivore were three prominent horns on the skull and a series of small osteoderms (skin bone plates) that ran over the neck, back and tail. Ceratosaurus is best known for five fragmentary skeletons with skulls that come from the Morrison Formation of the western United States . He is the eponymous representative of the Ceratosauria , a group of basal (original) theropods. The only currently generally recognized species is Ceratosaurus nasicornis . Two other species have been described, Ceratosaurus dentisulcatus and C. magnicornis , the validity of which is however controversial today. Ceratosaurus is one of the dinosaurs known to the public and appears regularly in popular books about dinosaurs.

features

The holotype specimen of Ceratosaurus nasicornis is estimated to be 5.3 meters long, although it is unclear whether this individual was fully grown. The largest specimen found comes from the Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry and is estimated to be 8.8 meters in length; this specimen is led by some researchers as a separate species, Ceratosaurus dentisulcatus . Body weight estimates vary by author, with different weight estimates of the holotype specimen being 418.4 kg, 524 kg, and 670 kg.

As with other ceratosauria, the skull was relatively large. Unique is a distinctive horn that is located on the midline of the skull behind the nostrils. Only the bony horn base, which was covered with keratin in living animals, is known to have been fossilized . The horn base is rounded and narrow. In the holotype specimen, it measures at its base a length of 13 centimeters and a width of 2 centimeters; immediately above the base, however, the width decreases to 1.2 centimeters. Their height is 7 centimeters, based on the top of the nasal bone. The horn base is formed by the fused right and left halves of the pair of nasal bones (nasals). In young animals, the two halves of the horn base have not yet fused. In addition to the nasal horn, Ceratosaurus had a pair of horns that are located on the top of the skull in front of the eye openings and are formed by the paired tear bone (lacrimale). All three horns were proportionally larger in adults than in juveniles. The horns were probably used for display purposes only.

There were between 12 and 15 blade-shaped teeth in each half of the upper jaw. The paired intermaxillary bone (premaxillary), a bone in front of the upper jaw, had only three teeth on each half, fewer than in most other theropods. In the lower jaw there were 11 to 15 teeth on each side, which were a little straighter and less strong than the teeth of the upper jaw. The tooth crowns of the upper jaw were exceptionally long and measure up to 9.3 cm in length in the largest known Ceratosaurus specimen, which corresponds to the lowest height of the lower jaw. In the smaller holotype specimen, the length of the tooth crowns (7 cm) even exceeds the smallest height of the lower jaw (6.3 cm) - this feature is only found in other theropods in the possibly closely related Genyodectes . In contrast, some representatives of the Abelisauridae, also related to Ceratosaurus , had very low tooth crowns.

The number of vertebrae cannot be precisely determined because the spine of the holotype specimen has several gaps. The sacrum consists of 6 sacral vertebrae (sacral vertebrae); In front of the sacrum there were at least 20 presacral vertebrae (cervical and dorsal vertebrae), while about 50 caudal vertebrae followed behind the sacrum. The spinous processes of the caudal vertebrae were elongated, as were the chevron bones , which gave the tail a deep profile when viewed from the side. Unique to theropods is a series of small, elongated, and irregularly shaped osteoderms (cutaneous bone plates) that run along the midline of the body above the vertebrae on the neck, back, and most of the tail. Off the center line of the body, Ceratosaurus had other osteoderms, as indicated by a plate about 6 by 7 centimeters, which was found together with the holotype specimen, but its position on the body of the animal is unclear.

As with other representatives of the Ceratosauria, the arms were relatively short and ended in four fingers. So far, only an incomplete hand skeleton has been found, which is why the exact number of phalanges is unclear. The first and fourth metacarpal bones were reduced in size, while the second metacarpal bones were slightly longer than the third.

Research history and finds

The first specimen ( holotype , specimen number USNM 4737) consists of a relatively complete skeleton with skull and was discovered by the farmer Marshall P. Felch in the years 1883 to 1884. It comes from Felch Quarry 1 , one of the richest quarries in the Morrison Formation, in the Garden Park area north of Cañyon City in Colorado . The find was exposed from hard sandstone, the skull and spine were found heavily crushed. The holotype specimen of Allosaurus had previously been recovered from the same quarry - along with numerous other dinosaur fossils . In 1884 Othniel Charles Marsh described a new genus and species, Ceratosaurus nasicornis, based on this skeleton . Thanks to the relatively complete remains, Ceratosaurus was the best known Jurassic theropod in America at the time. The name Ceratosaurus ( Greek keras - "horn", sauros - "lizard") means something like "horned lizard" and is intended to refer to the distinctive nasal horn. In 1920 Charles Gilmore published an extensive new description of the skeleton.

A first skeletal reconstruction was published by Marsh in 1892. As Gilmore (1920) noted, the spine in this reconstruction shows at least six supernumerary vertebrae, resulting in a trunk that is significantly too long. This error was taken over in various publications that followed, such as the first reconstruction of life, which Frank Bond made in 1899 under the guidance of Charles Knight , but was not published until 1920. A more correct life reconstruction was made by JM Gleeson, also under the direction of Charles Knight, and published in 1901. The holotype skeleton was assembled by Gilmore in 1910 and 1911 and has since been on display at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, DC . Since the skeleton is heavily crushed on the sides, Gilmore mounted the skeleton as a bas-relief (bas-relief). Early reconstructions show Ceratosaurus mostly in an upright position and with a tail resting on the ground. Gilmore's Montage, on the other hand, was ahead of its time - inspired by the thighbone found in a highly angled position, Gilmore depicted the Montage as a running animal, with a horizontal posture and a tail that did not touch the ground.

After the discovery of the holotype specimen, only very fragmentary remains of Ceratosaurus were initially found. It was not until the early 1960s, under the direction of James Madsen, that a fragmentary skeleton with a skull (copy number UMNH VP 5278) was recovered from the Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry in Utah - it is the largest specimen of Ceratosaurus known to date. Unlike the holotype specimen, this skeleton was not found articulated; When they were discovered, the bones were no longer in their original anatomical position. Another articulated skeleton with a skull (specimen number MWC 1) was discovered by Thor Erikson, the son of paleontologist Lance Erikson , near the town of Fruita , Colorado in 1976 . This specimen is relatively complete; important missing skeletal elements include the lower jaw, forearms and abdominal ribs (gastralia). It was a large individual, but not fully grown, as indicated by numerous open skulls . Both skeletons were described by Madsen and Welles (2000) in their revision of the genus, whereby the skeleton discovered in Utah forms the holotype of the new species Ceratosaurus dentisulcatus and that discovered in Colorado that of the new species Ceratosaurus magnicornis . In 1992, another fragmentary skeleton (copy number BYUVP 12893) was discovered in the Agate Basin Quarry , Utah; the description is currently being prepared. This specimen includes a complete facial skull, seven fragmentary vertebrae, and fragmentary pelvic bones. It is one of the two largest known Ceratosaurus skeletons . In 1999 Brooks Britt reported on the discovery of the only Ceratosaurus skeleton to date that belonged to a young animal. This skeleton comes from the Bone Cabin Quarry in Wyoming . It is 34% smaller than the holotype specimen and consists of a complete skull and the 30% preserved postcranium including a complete pelvis.

In addition to the five skeleton finds, other fragmentary finds from various important sites are known. An isolated right intermaxillary bone (premaxillary, specimen number DNM 972) comes from the Dinosaur National Monument in Utah . A large scapula with a raven bone was reported from Como Bluff , Wyoming . There is also an as yet undescribed find from the Dry Mesa Quarry in Colorado, consisting of a left shoulder blade with a raven bone and fragments of vertebrae and limbs. In the Mygatt-Moore-Quarry in Colorado the genus is represented by teeth.

Evidence outside of North America

Between 1909 and 1913, expeditions by the Berlin Museum of Natural History brought to light the diverse dinosaur fauna of the Tendaguru Formation in what is now Tanzania . The Tendaguru Formation is now considered the most important site for dinosaur fossils in Africa, although large theropods have only come down to us through a few and very fragmentary finds. In 1920 Werner Janensch assigned some vertebrae from the TL quarry to the genus Ceratosaurus , without assigning them to a specific species ( Ceratosaurus sp.). In 1925 Janensch described a new species of Ceratosaurus , Ceratosaurus roechlingi , based on fragmentary remains from the Mw quarry , which include a square bone , a fibula , remains of caudal vertebrae and other fragments. This find belonged to an animal that was significantly larger than the holotype specimen of Ceratosaurus . Madsen and Welles (2000) confirm the assignment of both finds to Ceratosaurus and also attribute some teeth, which Janensch described as Labrosaurus (?) Stechowi in 1920 , to Ceratosaurus . However, other authors disagree and state that none of the finds from Tendaguru show diagnostic features that would justify an assignment to Ceratosaurus . Rowe and Gauthier (1990) mention a second Ceratosaurus species from Tendaguru, Ceratosaurus ingens , which was supposedly established by Janensch (1920) and is based on 25 isolated teeth with a length of up to 15 cm. In fact, Janensch assigned this species to the genus Megalosaurus , which is why this name may be a copy error.

Oktávio Mateus and colleagues (2000, 2006) attribute a bone find to Ceratosaurus , consisting of a femur and a shin, as well as various isolated teeth that come from the Lourinhã Formation in Portugal . These researchers come to the conclusion that the Portuguese theropod fauna is composed similarly to that of the North American Morrison Formation. In addition to Ceratosaurus, two other genera typical of the Morrison Formation were also found in Portugal, Allosaurus and Torvosaurus . At the time of the Upper Jurassic, Europe was separated from North America by the young and narrow Atlantic Ocean, and the Iberian Peninsula was also separated from other parts of Europe. However, the similarity of the theropod faunas in Portugal and North America suggests that there were temporary land bridges that allowed fauna to be exchanged. These authors attribute the bone find to the species Ceratosaurus dentisulcatus . Carrano and Sampson (2008) confirm the assignment of these fossils to Ceratosaurus , but come to the conclusion that the find cannot be assigned to a specific species.

A single tooth comes from Moutier ( Switzerland ), originally described by Janensch (1920) as Labrosaurus meriani , but by Madsen and Welles (2000) as Ceratosaurus sp. was designated. Soto and Perea (2008) describe teeth from the Tacuarembó formation of Uruguay that show features that are diagnostic of the genus Ceratosaurus . According to these researchers, an assignment of these teeth to Ceratosaurus is ruled out because of the scarce fossil material. According to these researchers, assignments of fossils from Europe and Africa to the genus Ceratosaurus should be viewed with caution because of the scarce fossil material.

Systematics

species

The type species and currently the only generally recognized species is Ceratosaurus nasicornis . Madsen and Welles (2000) identified two new species: Ceratosaurus magnicornis from Colorado and Ceratosaurus dentisulcatus from Utah. While Ceratosaurus magnicornis has a somewhat rounder horn than Ceratosaurus nasicornis , the horn of Ceratosaurus dentisulcatus is not fossilized. Both species were significantly larger than Ceratosaurus nasicornis . The validity of these species is controversial: Britt and colleagues (2000) suspect that the holotype specimen of Ceratosaurus nasicornis was actually a young animal, and that the two larger species actually represent adult stages of Ceratosaurus nasicornis . Rauhut (2003) and Carrano and Sampson (2008) also consider the two new species to be identical to Ceratosaurus nasicornis and state that the differences described by Madsen and Welles were probably ontogenic (developmental) or individual variations.

External system

Ceratosauria cladogram (simplified from Xu, 2009)
 Ceratosauria 

Spinostropheus


   

Deltadromeus


 unnamed 

Limusaurus


   

Elaphrosaurus



 unnamed 

Ceratosaurus


   

Abelisauroidea



Template: Klade / Maintenance / 3Template: Klade / Maintenance / 4

Template: Klade / Maintenance / Style
Systematic position of Ceratosaurus .

The Ceratosauria group includes the Abelisauroidea group , which includes all derived (advanced) representatives such as Carnotaurus and Noasaurus , as well as a number of basal (original) representatives, including Ceratosaurus , Elaphrosaurus , Spinostropheus and Deltadromeus . Most studies see Ceratosaurus as the most derived of these basal genera and as a sister taxon of the Abelisauroidea. Oliver Rauhut (2004) suspects, however, that Genyodectes, known only from the jawbone, is the sister taxon of Ceratosaurus ; he summarizes both genera as Ceratosauridae. The group Ceratosauridae was set up in 1884 by Othniel Charles Marsh, but contained Ceratosaurus as the only representative, which is why later authors considered it redundant and not used.

A skull from the Central Jurassic of England has a nose horn similar to that of Ceratosaurus . Friedrich von Huene (1926) described this skull as Proceratosaurus ("Before Ceratosaurus ") because he assumed it was a forerunner of the late Jurassic Ceratosaurus . Today Proceratosaurus is considered a representative of the Tetanurae ; Oliver Rauhut and colleagues (2010) classify this genus as the oldest known representative of the Tyrannosauroidea . The characteristic nasal horn in Proceratosaurus and Ceratosaurus thus developed convergently (independently of one another).

Paleobiology and paleoecology

Habitat and ecological niches

Size comparison of different theropods of the Morrison Formation . Two Ceratosaurus specimens are shown in pink and red.
Ceratosaurus (in the background) hunts Dryosaurus (in the foreground); Skeletal reconstructions at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh .

All Ceratosaurus fossils found in North America come from the Kimmeridgian and Tithonian of the Morrison Formation , one of the most important find layers for dinosaur fossils. Ceratosaurus shared the habitat with other theropods, such as the megalosaurid Torvosaurus and the allosaurid Allosaurus . For example, the Garden Park site in Colorado contained the remains of Allosaurus in addition to the remains of Ceratosaurus . The Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry in Utah, the Dry Mesa Quarry in Colorado and the Dinosaur National Monument on the border of Colorado and Utah each had the remains of at least three major theropods: Ceratosaurus , Allosaurus and Torvosaurus . Como Bluff and neighboring sites in Wyoming also contained the remains of Ceratosaurus , Allosaurus and a large megalosaurid.

Various studies attempt to clarify which mechanisms could have restricted the direct competition of these species. Henderson (1998) examined Ceratosaurus as well as two morphotypes of Allosaurus - a shape with a shortened snout, a tall and wide skull, and short, rearward-facing teeth, and a shape with a longer snout, a lower skull, and long, more vertical teeth. The competition among sympatric species is generally greater, the more similar the species are in terms of their morphology, physiology and behavior. Henderson comes to the conclusion that the short-snouted Allosaurus morph occupied a different ecological niche than Ceratosaurus and the long- snouted Allosaurus morph: The shorter skull of this Allosaurus morph led to a reduction in the bending moments that the skull is exposed to during a bite, which resulted in an overall stronger bite, similar to that of a cat. The long- snouted skull of Ceratosaurus and the other Allosaurus morphs, on the other hand, could be compared to that of a dog: The longer teeth may have had the function of fangs to inflict slit wounds, with the bite force focused on a smaller area because of the narrower skull.

Henderson's comparison of the long- snouted Allosaurus morphs with Ceratosaurus , however, revealed great similarities, from which he concluded that these two forms were in direct competition with each other. Henderson suspects that Allosaurus pushed Ceratosaurus back further and further. The Cleveland-Lloyd-Quarry shows the remains of the long- snouted Allosaurus morphs and those of Ceratosaurus , although Ceratosaurus seemed to be very rare. In the Dry Mesa Quarry, however, which contained fossils of Ceratosaurus and the short-nosed Allosaurus morph, Ceratosaurus is discovered far more often.

Henderson interprets the evolution of the extremely elongated teeth in Ceratosaurus as a direct result of the pressure of competition with the long- snouted Allosaurus morph. To move into another ecological niche, Ceratosaurus might have preferred other prey; as a scavenger, Ceratosaurus could have consumed other parts of carcasses. The elongated teeth could also have served as a visual signal to recognize conspecifics or had other social functions. According to Henderson, the evolution of a large body size of these theropods (6–8 m) also contributes to the reduction of competition, as the prey range increases with increasing body size.

In a more recent study, Robert Bakker and Gary Bir (2004) suspect that Ceratosaurus specialized primarily in aquatic prey such as lungfish, crocodiles and turtles. A statistical analysis of the distribution of tooth finds in 50 sites in and around Como Bluff showed that teeth from Ceratosaurus and Megalosaurids are mainly found in aquatic sites, with Ceratosaurus occasionally appearing in sites with indications of dry conditions. Allosaurids, on the other hand, were found in sites with indications of dry conditions and in aquatic sites alike.

These researchers conclude that Ceratosaurus and the megalosaurids primarily hunted in and around water, with Ceratosaurus occasionally eating on the carcasses of large dinosaurs. The researchers also point to the unusually deep and thus crocodile-like tail of Ceratosaurus , which could have been an adaptation to swimming. In addition, the body of Ceratosaurus and Megalosaurids was relatively long, low, and flexible, while Allosaurids were short, tall, and stiff - so Ceratosaurus would have been a better swimmer than an Allosaurid. Allosaurids, on the other hand, are designed for fast running in open terrain and for preying on large herbivorous dinosaurs such as sauropods and stegosaurs, but seasonally switched to aquatic prey when these herbivores were not available.

Function of the headphones

Othniel Charles Marsh (1884) and Charles Gilmore (1920) suspect that the nasal horn sitting on the bony base was large and sharp-edged and was actively used for both defense and attack. Rowe and Gauthier (1990), on the other hand, argue that the nasal horn and the brow horn are not stable enough to be used in combat. Instead, these horns were likely used for display purposes only. The row of osteoderms on the midline of the body may also have been used for display, according to these researchers.

Paleopathology

The foot of the holotype specimen is characterized by the fused metatarsal bones 2 and 4. Although some authors suggested that this was a distinctive feature of the genus, it was a pathological feature, possibly a healed fracture.

In popular culture

Ceratosaurus with its characteristic horns is one of the better-known dinosaurs and appears in fictional literature , for example he is the protagonist in Dino Buzzati's 1942 fantastic story L'uccisione del drago (in German translation as The Murder of the Dragon ). Ceratosaurus also occurs in many " dinosaur movies on", such as a protagonist in the fight against " caveman " in Brute Force (1914) by David Wark Griffith , perhaps the first dinosaur live action in film history. In the fantasy film A Million Years Before Our Time (1966) there is a fight between a Ceratosaurus and a Triceratops . Ceratosaurs also appear in the science fiction film Jurassic Park III and in the feature films T-Rex and Age of Dinosaurs - Terror in LA .

supporting documents

literature

  • Robert T. Bakker, Gary Bir: Dinosaur Crime Scene Investigations: Theropod Behavior at Como Bluff, Wyoming, and the Evolution of Birdness . In: Philip J. Currie, Eva B. Koppelhus, Martin A. Shugar, Joanna L. Wright (Eds.): Feathered Dragons. Indiana University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-253-34373-9 , pp. 301-342 .
  • Paul D. Brinkman: The Second Jurassic Dinosaur Rush. Museums and Paleontology in America at the Turn of the Twentieth Century . University of Chicago Press, 2010.
  • BB Britt, CA Miles, KC Cloward, JH Madsen: A juvenile Ceratosaurus (Theropoda, Dinosauria) from Bone Cabin Quarry West (Upper Jurassic, Morrison Formation), Wyoming . 19 (addition to 3), 33A. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 1999.
  • Kenneth Carpenter: The Cañon City Dinosaur Sites of Marsh and Cope . In: Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Field Trip . 1999.
  • Matthew T. Carrano, Scott D. Sampson: The Phylogeny of Ceratosauria (Dinosauria: Theropoda) . In: Journal of Systematic Palaeontology . tape 6 , 2008, p. 183-236 .
  • John R. Foster: Paleoecological analysis of the vertebrate fauna of the Morrison Formation (Upper Jurassic), Rocky Mountain region, USA . In: New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science . tape 23 , 2003, p. 1-95 .
  • CW Gilmore: Osteology of the carnivorous Dinosauria in the United States National Museum, with special reference to the genera Antrodemus (Allosaurus) and Ceratosaurus . No. 110 . Bulletin of the United States National Museum, 1920, p. 1-154 .
  • Donald F. Glut : Dinosaurs, the encyclopedia . McFarland & Company, Inc. Publishers, 1997, ISBN 978-0-375-82419-7 .
  • Donald F. Glut, Michael K. Brett-Surman: Dinosaurs and the media . In: The Complete Dinosaur . Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-253-33349-0 , pp. 675-706 .
  • Donald M. Henderson: Skull and tooth morphology as indicators of niche partitioning in sympatric Morrison Formation theropods . In: Gaia . No. 15 , 1998, ISSN  0871-5424 , p. 219-226 .
  • Werner Janensch: The coelurosaurs and theropods of the Tendaguru layers of German East Africa . In: Palaeontographica, Supplement VIII: 1-100. 1925.
  • F. v. Huene: On several known and unknown reptiles of the order Saurischia from England and France . In: Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Series 9 . No. 17 , 1926, pp. 473-489 .
  • James H. Madsen, Samuel Paul Welles: Ceratosaurus (Dinosauria, Theropoda): A Revised Osteology . Utah Geological Survey, 2000, ISBN 1-55791-380-3 , pp. 1-80 .
  • Othniel Charles Marsh: Principal characters of American Jurassic dinosaurs, part VIII: The order Theropoda . tape 27 , no. 160 . American Journal of Science, 1884, pp. 329-340 .
  • O. Mateus, MT Antunes: Ceratosaurus (Dinosauria: Theropoda) in the Late Jurassic of Portugal . In: 31st International Geological Congress, Abstract Volume . Rio de Janeiro 2000.
  • O. Mateus, A. Walen, MT Antunes: The large theropod fauna of the Lourinhã Formation (Portugal) and its similarity to the Morrison Formation, with a description of a new species of Allosaurus . In: JR Foster, SG Lucas (Ed.): Paleontology and Geology of the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation . Bulletin 36. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science, 2006.
  • RE Molnar: Theropod Paleopathology: A Literature Survey . In: DH Tanke, K. Carpenter (Ed.): Mesozoic Vertebrate Life . Indiana University Press, 2001, pp. 337-363 .
  • Gregory S. Paul: Predatory Dinosaurs of the World . Simon & Schuster, 1988, ISBN 0-671-61946-2 , Ceratosaurs.
  • Oliver Rauhut: The interrelationships and evolution of basal theropod dinosaurs . In: Special Papers in Paleontology . tape 69 , 2003.
  • Oliver Rauhut, Angela Milner, Scott Moore-Fay: Cranial osteology and phylogenetic position of the theropod dinosaur Proceratosaurus bradleyi (Woodward, 1910) from the Middle Jurassic of England . In: Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society . tape 158 , no. 1 , 2010, p. 155-195 , doi : 10.1111 / j.1096-3642.2009.00591.x .
  • Oliver Rauhut: Provenance and anatomy of Genyodectes serus, a large-toothed ceratosaur (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from Patagonia . In: Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology . tape 24 , no. 4 , 2004, p. 894-902 .
  • Timothy B. Rowe, Jacques Gauthier, David B Weishampel, P. Dodson, H. Osmolska: Ceratosauria . In: The Dinosauria . 1st edition. University of California Press, Berkeley 1990, ISBN 0-520-06726-6 , pp. 151-168 .
  • Matías Soto, Daniel Perea: A Ceratosaurid (Dinosauria, Theropoda) from the Late Jurassic – Early Cretaceous of Uruguay . In: Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology . tape 28 , no. 2 , 2008, p. 439-444 .
  • Darren H. Tanke, Bruce M. Rothschild: Dinosores: An Annotated Bibliography of Dinosaur Paleopathology and Related Topics - 1838-2001 . In: New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science . Bulletin 20, 2001.
  • François Therrien, Donald M. Henderson: My theropod is bigger than yours… or not: estimating body size from skull length in theropods . In: Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology . tape 27 , no. 1 , 2007, p. 108-115 .
  • RS Tykoski, T. Rowe: Ceratosauria . In: DB Weishampel, P. Dodson, H. Osmólska (eds.): The Dinosauria . 2nd Edition. University of California Press, Berkeley 2004, ISBN 0-520-24209-2 , pp. 47-70 .
  • Xing Xu, James M. Clark, Jinyou Mo, Jonah Choiniere, Catherine A. Forster, Gregory M. Erickson, David WE Hone, Corwin Sullivan, David A. Eberth, Sterling Nesbitt, Qi Zhao, Rene Hernandez, Cheng-kai Jia, Feng-lu Han, Yu Guo: A Jurassic ceratosaur from China helps clarify avian digital homologies . In: Nature . tape 459 , May 18, 2009, p. 940-944 , doi : 10.1038 / nature08124 .
  • Wolfgang Zils, Christa Werner, Andrea Moritz, Charles Saanane: Tendaguru, the most famous dinosaur locality of Africa. Review, survey and future prospects . In: documenta naturae . tape 97 . Munich 1995, p. 1-41 .

Web links

Commons : Ceratosaurus  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Gregory S. Paul: The Princeton Field Guide To Dinosaurs , 2010. ISBN 978-0-691-13720-9 , pp. 84-85 Online ( Memento of the original of July 13, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and not yet tested. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / press.princeton.edu
  2. ↑ a b c d e Glut 1997 , pp. 266-270
  3. ↑ a b c d Gilmore 1920 pp. 114-115
  4. ↑ a b Madsen and Welles 2000
  5. ↑ Therrien and Henderson 2007 , p. 109
  6. ↑ a b Marsh 1884 , pp. 330–331
  7. ↑ a b Gilmore 1920 , p. 82
  8. ↑ a b Britt et al. 1999
  9. ↑ a b c Tykoski and Rowe 2004 , p. 66
  10. ↑ a b c Rowe et al. 1990 , p. 167
  11. ↑ Tykoski and Rowe 2004 , p. 52
  12. ↑ Madsen and Welles 2000 , p. 23
  13. ↑ Rauhut 2004 , p. 900
  14. ↑ Tykoski and Rowe 2004 , p. 54
  15. ↑ Tykoski and Rowe 2004 , p. 58
  16. ↑ Gilmore 1920 , pp. 113-114
  17. ↑ Tykoski and Rowe 2004 , p. 59
  18. ↑ Gilmore 1920 , p. 104
  19. ↑ Brinkman 2010 , p. 10
  20. ↑ Carpenter 1999 , p. 8
  21. ↑ a b Marsh 1884
  22. ↑ Ben Creisler . Retrieved January 29, 2011
  23. ↑ Gilmore 1920
  24. ↑ Paul 1988 , pp. 274-279
  25. ↑ Madsen and Welles 2000 , p. 21
  26. ↑ Madsen and Welles 2000 , pp. 2-3
  27. ↑ a b c d e Madsen and Welles 2000 , pp. 35-37
  28. ↑ a b Zils et al. 1995 , p. 1
  29. ↑ a b Janensch 1925 , pp. 61–65
  30. ↑ a b c d Carrano and Sampson , p. 192
  31. ↑ a b Rowe et al. 1990 , p. 165
  32. ↑ a b Janensch 1925 , p. 90
  33. ↑ a b c Mateus et al. 2006 , pp. 1-2
  34. ↑ Mateus 2000
  35. ^ Soto and Perea, 2008
  36. ↑ Rauhut 2003 , p. 25
  37. ↑ a b Xu et al. 2009 , Supplementary Information, p. 27
  38. ↑ a b c Carrano and Sampson , pp. 185 f.
  39. ↑ Rauhut 2004 , p. 895
  40. ↑ By Huene 1926
  41. ^ Rauhut 2010
  42. ↑ a b c d Henderson, 1998
  43. ↑ Foster 2003 , p. 20
  44. ↑ Bakker and Bir 2004 , pp. 106-107
  45. ↑ a b Bakker and Bir 2004 , pp. 123-139
  46. ↑ Tanke et al. 2001 , pp. 9, 25, 42-43
  47. ↑ Molnar 2001 , pp. 339-340
  48. ↑ Glut and Brett-Surman 1997 , p. 676
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