Daoist ritual
The Daoist ritual describes ritual acts within Daoism that are performed by Daoshi or Quanzhen monks and nuns. Simple rituals such as sacrifices and prayers are also performed by laypeople in Daoism, and as a community they sometimes also take part in the rituals of specialists.
These are complex and elaborate rituals in which song, dance and recitation to the music of various instruments such as bells, drums and cymbals are practiced. The rituals also require costumes, altars, oil lamps, incense containers, and ritual items. The actions of the rituals relate, for example, to court audiences, exorcism , sword dance or farce-like performances. The rituals are performed either by a single Daoshi or by a group. Within the group there is often a main cantor and a secondary cantor , a person responsible for the censer and a leader for the dances. While in Quanzhen Daoism the rituals are performed in the monastery, the sky masters perform their rituals in their residence or in local temples and private households. The Daoist rituals can be dedicated to any deity in a local temple. In order to perform the rituals, a portable altar and the five true talismans (wu zhenfu) are set up, scrolls are hung, which represent the three pure ones , Zhang Daoling and the supreme ruler of the dark skies (Xuantian Shangdi). Other gods and spirits from heaven, earth and water are also represented.
Ritual objects that are placed on the altar by the Daoshi are the "seal of the five thunders", a horn made of metal or buffalo horn, sword, censer, water container, rice container, mirror and scissors, writing board, tea, wine and rice. The rituals practiced in Daoism take place on a symbolic and transformative level and the respective rituals are repeated at certain times. They include e.g. B. Performances and sacrifices, prayers, exorcism and requien, as well as meditation and visualizations.
Widely used rituals are e.g. B. those of Fulu (talismans and registers).
Origins of Daoist rituals
The origins of Daoist rituals lie in the Heavenly Master Movement of the Han Dynasty . The later Shangqing Daoism contributed a meditative and visionary aspect to the rituals, while the Lingbao Daoism integrated liturgies into the Daoist rituals. Most of the rituals originated between the 5th and 9th centuries. Rituals put together by Zhang Wanfu and Du Guangting in the Tang period are already very similar to today's Daoist rituals. Rituals recorded during the Song era , on the other hand, are often more complex than contemporary rituals. During this time, rival Daoist schools emerged, which criticized each other strongly and brought up new pantheons , liturgies and rituals. As a result, the Quanzhen Daoism , which still exists today, developed its own ritual tradition that has been passed on to this day.
During this time, new Daoist movements emerged in southern China, all of which influenced the contemporary Daoist ritual in southern China. Even forms of Daoism that also contained shamanistic and popular religious elements and whose rituals are not represented in the Daoist canon , left their mark on the rituals of southern China, not only among the Han Chinese , but also among the Yao and other peoples.
Contemporary Daoist rituals
Today's Daoist rituals are linked to the ritual traditions of medieval Daoism and Daoism of the late imperial period through a multitude of lines of tradition . One can also determine different regional traditions.
In Taoism today, there are two main traditions regarding the rituals. Quanzhen and the Zhengyi Lingbao tradition (Heavenly Master Daoism), which is present in different branches. Quanzhen Daoism is mainly active in northern China, although it is also represented in some areas of southern China, e.g. B. in Zhejiang , Guangdong , Fujian and Hong Kong . The rituals of Quanzhen Daoism have been little researched.
Zhengyi Daoism is passed on from father to son or from master to disciple. Most Daoist ritual specialists have a residence and work from there outside of their home. The headquarters of the Sky Masters are traditionally on Longhu Shan , but local traditions have given rise to many different ritual traditions, both in China and among overseas Chinese.
Documentation of these traditions is not very advanced. Research was carried out on Daoist ritual traditions mainly in Taiwan , where great differences were found between the rituals in the south and the rituals in the north. For example, the rituals in northern Taiwan consist of public offerings, individual rituals, and requies. A peculiarity of the southern Daoists is that they do not hold any death rituals. The rituals of Taiwanese Daoists have their origins in Fujian , so that Fujian has been particularly well researched scientifically in relation to Taoist rituals. In Fujian a distinction is made between the rituals of the “red hats” and the “black hats”. The black hat ritualists in their temples are to be regarded as classical and literary, while the red hats practice vernacular, oral rites outside of temples. Apart from the classical rituals, there is a widespread ritual tradition that combines shamanistic and Buddhist elements with Daoism.
Today's Heavenly Master Daoism rituals in Quanzhou , Zhangzhou and southern Taiwan contain three main categories of rituals: public offering (jiao), performance of requien (gongde) and "rites of lesser exorcism" (xiaofa). Most of the rites begin with the placement of the "five true talismans" of the Lingbao tradition on the main altar and around the altar to create a sacred space. Next, the altar is cleaned and sealed, the Daoist gods are invited, and incense and tea are offered. The climax of the ritual is a memorandum presented to the gods. This explains the purpose of the memorandum and names the donors. Afterwards there is a celebration of the gods, the ritual is proclaimed successful, thanksgiving is offered and the gods are dismissed. At the end the altar is sometimes dismantled.
This external ritual is accompanied by internal visualizations of the “master of high merit”. He embarks on an inner journey into different spheres, which are in diagrams on the ground, in the body of the master and in the heavens. For this purpose, magic spells, finger movements and the pacing of symbols associated with mantic diagrams , the Daoist stars and the hexagrams of Yijing are performed. The “master of high merit” imagines a journey through the different spheres of the body down to his skull, where the highest forms of the Dao emanate in an astral palace where he presents the memorial. During the imagination, as in certain stages of inner alchemy , the “master of high merit” can get into a state that is childlike, but ages again when he travels back to the altar.
Daoist rituals contain three elements of early Daoism: fasting and purification, Dao practices, and the proclamation of merit. Today's rituals conclude with the proclamation of the memorandum to the Jade Emperor . To do this, the Daoshi climbs a staircase that faces the temple. After the memorandum has been presented to the Jade Emperor, representatives of the community are sometimes allowed to climb the stairs themselves in order to reaffirm and strengthen the bond between the gods and the community. This renewed agreement is intended to bring salvation to the community and increase its status.
History of the Daoist ritual
Heavenly Master Daoism
Zhengyi Sky Master Daoism rituals were established by Zhang Lu . Various elements flow together in them. They refer to rituals at the imperial court and to popular shamanism and mantic of the pre-imperial period. (cf. Fangshi , Wuism ). It is possible that Buddhism, which was emerging in China at that time, also had some influence. Early Heavenly Master Daoism differed from popular cults in that blood sacrifices and payments for rituals were not carried out. At the same time, bureaucratic and ritual practices were adopted by court audiences. These practices referred to a new pantheon of Daoism , which was anthropomorphic personifications of the Dao . The old folk gods now became Gui , "demons" controlled by the new gods of the Three Heavens. These Gui were now considered to be the energy and inhabitants of the lowest six heavens, which had become insignificant and were now viewed as generals and administrators of the dead. Within Daoism, it was handed down that Laozi himself gave Zhang Daoling control over gods and demons by registering them.
Bureaucratic elements can e.g. B. found in practices in which the "three offices" ( Sanguan ) of heaven, earth and water ( underworld ) received documents in three forms, which were ritually burned, buried or sunk.
The ritual of the heavenly masters was mainly connected with meditation and the confession of sins . These were carried out in chambers of silence or prayer rooms. Such rituals have been reconstructed from a Shangqing script of the 5th century: One of the main elements was the falu , "lighting the censer" (the body). The body deities and cosmic forces were visualized in the body, whereby the adept could get to the gods and present a memorial there. At the end of the ritual, cosmic forces flowed through the adept once more and the body deities withdrew into the body. Then the censer was covered ( Fulu ).
The Chuguan ritual, reconstructed from the same script, refers to the registers that the adept received. Their deities were presented as personified, the adept prayed for healing and help and made confessions, whereupon rituals were performed that had to do with the reporting of merit ( Yangong ).
Other scriptures in which the early rituals of the sky masters appear are the Taiping Jing and the Xiang'er Commentary on Daodejing . An early text on rituals that appears fragmented in the Daozang and Dunhuang manuscripts is the Zhengyi Fawen ("Ritual Compendium of Orthodox Unity").
A widespread practice of Heavenly Masters was praying healthy because it was believed that illnesses arise from sin and are self-inflicted. It was also assumed that the dead, including relatives and ancestors, could commit evil acts, so that for the purpose of recovery, not only their own sins, but also those of the ancestors were reported. These reports were sent to the gods in formal writings and petitions asking for forgiveness. They were given through meditation by a master of the ritual who worked in the prayer rooms.
The hierarchy of the sky masters at that time consisted of "Qi-dispersing" ritual masters, so-called "ritual masters of the libation", who were responsible for leading rituals, so-called "demon soldiers" with a lower rank and the common ones, " Demons ". The ritual masters were responsible for conveying the memorials to the higher gods of the pantheon by means of visualizations and the summoning of the body deities. Talismans were also used for healing purposes or ashes dissolved in blessed water were drunk from talismans.
Initiations of certain degrees were established by the sky masters . The initiates, for example, received registers of the body deities who were subordinate to them. It is also possible that sexual rites and the fusing of body deities were carried out, as a later Shangqing text suggests. Buddhists attacked these sexual rituals later and they were then severely suppressed by reforms within Daoism.
The rituals of the sky masters changed in the 4th and 5th centuries due to the influences of the Shangqing and the Lingbao . Body deities were increasingly visualized, there was an increase in cleansing and protective rituals, and there was a stronger structuring of the input of memoranda and petitions. Rituals related to ordination and transmission were subject to more formalization and standardization. Since Daoism had also become more popular among the people, ritual masters began to hold Jiao offerings during the communal kitchen festivals.
During the Tang Dynasty , certain memoranda were first presented before the Jiao Sacrifice. The memoranda became more specific and increased in number. A multitude of concerns and needs were specified in them, which were also the content of the rituals.
Daoist rituals were only held on auspicious days, so certain scriptures of the Tang period refer to calendar observations and ritual taboos that were important for the performance of rituals. This tradition goes back to the pre-Qin period.
Exorcism and the expulsion of demons are also a tradition from earlier times that the Sky Masters continued. For the purpose of exorcism, the appropriate talisman is used and the name of the demon is called out, forcing it into its true form and capturing it by the priest.
Lists of demons appear in early Daoist and medieval writings. Examples here are the Nüqing Gulu (demon statute of Nüqing), the Wushang Biyao (secret essential goods of the Most High) and the Lingbao wugan wen (five equivalents of the Lingbao)
Shangqing, Lingbao and other schools
In the Shangqing school, which referred to the occult traditions in the Jiangnan region and to masters like Ge Hong , forms of meditation and visualizations were increasingly developed, especially the visualization of body deities. The Daoist pantheon was greatly expanded. B. the stars and the underworld are now endowed with palaces and their officials. The later Daoist rituals were strongly influenced by the Shangqing and included meditative and visionary practices of this school.
The Lingbao School, on the other hand, was more oriented towards communal rituals, which became fundamental to later Daoism. Elements such as the universal goal of salvation, parts of the pantheon and the recitation of important scriptures were adopted from Buddhism in early scriptures and liturgies. Rituals such as circling the altar were also adopted.
Sometimes there were also Buddhized forms of Zhengyi rituals. There were rituals of the dead in which, for the inhabitants of the Nine Kingdoms of the Underworld, as with the heavenly masters, memorial writings were presented that referred to the illumination and redemption of these dead. Nevertheless, there were also older elements of Chinese rituals in the Lingbao, such as the use of talismans on the altar, which were supposed to connect with the cosmic powers. The Lingbao talismans are still used in today's Taoist rituals in Taiwan.
In many Lingbao scriptures, like Buddhism, the cult of sacred scriptures and the recitation of them are particularly emphasized. Overall, however, the Buddhist elements were mixed with an idealized form of rituals at the court of the Han and with even older, “shamanistic” forms of visionary mysticism .
During the Six Dynasties , there were local traditions that were chiliastic . As Buddhism gained influence in the 5th and 6th centuries, attempts were made to unify and codify the rituals of Daoism during this period, so that Daoist encyclopedias about beliefs and practice emerged. The writings of Lu Xiujing are characteristic here . In these scriptures 19 Zhai rituals are mentioned, a form of ritual that was of great importance later on. In general, the Zhai rituals of this time are divided into three groups: Zhai rituals of the “yellow register” for the dead, Zhai rituals of the “golden register” for the living and Zhai rituals of the “jade register” for the imperial court .
During the Tang Dynasty , Daoism was promoted by the imperial court, as Laozi was considered the ancestor of the dynasty. From Dunhuang finds one can see that Daoism continued to practice the rituals of initiation and that there were hierarchies of registers, scriptures and liturgies. Seals and talismans have also been passed on. In this time of Taoism also developed a Requiems -Ritualdienst that spread far. Ritual compendia of the Tang period mention rituals that were added to the previously known Zhai rituals. Some scriptures include 24 zhai ceremonies and 42 to 72 jiao . In the Tang period, the Zhai ceremonies were combined with the Jiao sacrifices, but the Jiao later became independent. In what is now Southeast China, the term Zhai is still used today for requien, while Jiao are communal sacrificial rites.
Among the oldest writings that explain Jiao are some of the writings of Zhang Wanfu, who describe the following elements: First, the altar and seat of the gods are erected. Then the altar is cleaned, the entry formula is spoken and the incense container is lit. This is followed by the emergence of the body deities and the invitation to the officials of the register, together with the reading of the memorial and sacrifices. Then the gods are sent back and body deities and earth deities are instructed to return to their posts. The officials are called in, the censer is extinguished, a hymn is sung to send the gods back and an initial formula is spoken.
After the fall of the Tang dynasty, the court Daoist Du Guangting (850–933) collected parts of the Daoist tradition and put them back together. These then became the basis for many collections of liturgies from the Song era . Sources have survived from the late Tang period describing new ritual traditions in which Daoism merged with local and regional cult forms.
At the time of the Song Dynasty , the Daoist rituals were in their most complex form, but attempts were also made to reduce the Daoist rituals to simplicity and traditional forms. During the Song period there were various main schools of Daoism, all of which had liturgy compendia.
Lin Lingsu (1076–1120) was the founder of the Shenxiao School. He brought newly revealed rites to Emperor Song Huizong , who was regarded as the incarnation of a Shenxiao deity. A characteristic of the Shenxiao School is the use of talismans and diagrams, lamps, seals and banners. Inner visualizations during the Liandu rituals are also characteristic. New Wulei rituals were also introduced.
Yang Xizhen (1101–1124) was the founder of the Tongchu School. He is said to have found sacred texts in a Maoshan cave .
The Tianxin School dates back to the 10th century . In their rituals, older Shangqing practices are combined with exorcism and liturgies. Quxie Yuan (The Deviating Forces Office) was the spiritual headquarters of the powers that be, and Tianpeng was one of the chief spirits of exorcism. Mainly three talismans were used, those of the Sanguang (Sun, Moon and Stars), the Perfect Warrior ( Zhenwu ) and the Spirits of the Big Dipper ( Tiangang ).
Zu Shu (889–904) is considered to be the founder of the Qingwei school. Historically, this school can only be traced back to the 13th century. In this school, earlier Daoist liturgies were combined. There was also a Buddhist influence here, as tantric mandalas were used during the thunder rituals.
The Daofa Huiyuan (body of Daoist rituals) from the Ming period contains Qingwei rituals. Including a large number of Liandu and thunder rituals, which come from different schools and traditions. Zhao Yichen published many of these rituals. He himself was healed through Qingwei rites and is considered a syncretist . However, the Ming period not only created a tendency to merge traditions, but also gave rise to many regional forms of ritual and local and popular forms of religion combined with general Daoism.
The Daoist rituals of the Qing period have been little researched. The Zangwai Daoshu (Daoist scriptures outside the canon) is an important source for certain ritual traditions of the Qing period. There are also special collections, such as B. a source of liturgies from Zhangzhou in the British Museum .
practice
According to Kristofer Schipper, the sacrifice of scriptures is a central element of the Daoist ritual. In fact, scriptures are created and burned during many rituals, including the Five True Scriptures , which serve to manifest the sacred sphere of the Dao. There are also rituals in which entire texts are burned. Nonetheless, other scholars interpret the sacrifice of scriptures only as an act of sacrifice and not as a key element of the ritual.
Changed perceptions and experiences of space and time through complex transformations of the body (bianshen) are another key element of Daoist rituals. The altar plays an important role in this. It represents the two spheres of the meditation or purification hall and the outer altar for the offerings. The altar symbolically represents a cave in a mountain. Through symbolic acts such as the laying out of the five talismans, it becomes a construction of many layers, which represent cosmological symbols through which the cosmic powers are transmitted. These symbols represent, for example, the Daoist deities, sun, moon and star constellations, hexagrams , the bagua and numerological magic squares . However, the interior landscape of the priest is the most important sphere of the altar. It also depicts a mountain with three caves. Its dantians contain palaces in the head, in the heart and the lower cinnabar field in the abdomen . The Daoist priest is connected to the entire cosmos through his body, who brings the powers into the sphere of the altar through the inner visualizations and this connectedness.
At the beginning the altar is ritually cleaned and generals and spiritual troops are called. This serves to commemorate and renew the pact between Zhang Daoling and Laozi, in which Laozi Zhang Daoling handed over the registers . The main act of the central rite is to lay out the five true talismans on the altar to attract pure cosmic forces. This takes place without light. After the five true talismans have been laid out, one lamp, two lamps, three lamps and then all (10,000) lamps are lit one after the other by a light that is brought from outside the temple area.
The gods, cosmic powers and spiritual forces are then invoked by different methods, for example by burning talismans and visualizations. These forces and gods then appear on the altar, whereupon offerings such as wine and incense are offered to them. Afterwards, holy scriptures are placed on the altar and are recited. This is so that the scriptures may be revealed anew under the eyes of the gods. It is believed that such scriptures will be revealed once in tens of thousands of years. The scriptures represent such a cosmic cycle. The acceleration of cosmic cycles on the altar in this way is said to result in merit for the priest and the congregation. During the rituals, theaters are performed on a stage to please the gods. This is also where the merits are announced. At the end of the rituals the gods are sent away, the talismans burned and the altar dismantled.
The Daoist ritual is based on a cosmogenesis in the form of a kind of theater, which symbolizes the re-creation of the cosmos, the completion of a cycle of revelation and a cosmically charged space. Through the inner rituals, the Daoshi calls the cosmic forces into his body in order to then bring them into the sphere of ritual space-time. The inner cosmic forces are projected into the incense burner and into the cleansing water, through which the altar is cleansed by the Daoshi spitting it over his sword.
The gods and entourage are invoked by the Daoshi in his own body and fused with their counterparts in the astral palaces. The Daoshi's body is transformed into the strange body of Laozi, and spiritual armies are summoned to cleanse the altar. The spatial sphere is transformed by Daoshi into the "land of Dao". The most important visualization and meditation of the rituals concerns a reversal of time: the Daoshi takes the form of a small child and travels through his microcosmic body to the palace of the Jade Emperor, which lies in the skull. A memorandum containing the purposes of the ritual is presented there. On the return journey that leads to its abdomen, the Daoshi grows again.
Individual evidence
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 659
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 660
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 660
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 660
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 661
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 661
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 661
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Leiden (et al.), Brill 2000, p. 662.
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 662
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Leiden (et al.), Brill 2000, pp. 662-663.
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 663
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 663
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 663
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 664
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 664
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 664
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 664
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 664
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 664 f.
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 665
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 665
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 665
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 665
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 665
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000, p. 665 f.
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000, p. 666.
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000, p. 666.
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000, p. 666.
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000, p. 666.
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000, p. 667.
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000, p. 667.
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000, p. 668.
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000, p. 668.
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000, p. 668.
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000, p. 668.
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000, p. 668 f.
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000, p. 669
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000, p. 669.
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000, p. 669
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 671
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 pp. 671f.
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 672
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 672
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 672
- ↑ Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (inter alia); Brill 2000 p. 673
literature
- Kenneth Dean: Daoist Ritual Today . In: Livia Kohn (Ed.): Daoism Handbook. Suffering (among others); Brill 2000.