History of water use
The history of human use of water and thus that of hydrology , water management , hydraulics , hydrotechnology and especially hydraulic engineering is characterized by a comparatively small number of basic motifs. To a limited extent, this also includes hygiene , which mostly developed in parallel and was a key driving factor in overcoming water problems. The development of water law and the cultural and religious-historical references to the topic of water are also elements of this historical process.
The focus is on the conflict between too much and too little water. The goal of all water-related activities, both of which provide in the form of drinking water and process water for human consumption as well as the discharge of waste water and protection from possible floods . The type of discharge of this wastewater, especially the question of its treatment , in turn influences the availability of usable water. The modern water management has therefore programmatically committed itself to a sustainable cycle principle.
The realization that this principle is necessary, as well as the willingness to implement it, was preceded by a long phase of errors and the simple ignorance of hydrological relationships, which in the history of mankind more than once for serious catastrophes, but above all for long-term ones Problems, was primarily or partly responsible. In contrast, there are the numerous technical and social innovations that can be found in almost all high cultures. In many cases, water problems play a central role in their development, and the solution to these problems can generally be regarded as a prerequisite for high settlement density and high agricultural yields. However, there is no globally valid or consistent development path in the sense of a constant improvement in knowledge and infrastructure. The history of water use is therefore primarily shaped by individual centers of high water management standards and recurring breaks, in addition to phases of stagnation that have often lasted for centuries.
Basics
It is difficult to precisely subdivide the history of water use into the current discipline. Not only are many areas, such as hydrology, not exactly definable, but such a distinction has not been made in the past. A separation into these areas would therefore draw borders where historically none exist. This shows that it is precisely the interrelationships and overlaps between technical, cultural and also legal issues in the area of “water and people” that deserve joint appreciation, since this is the only way to correctly understand each aspect in the context of the circumstances. A multidisciplinary presentation of the history of water use was therefore chosen, which makes the water itself the focus.
State of knowledge and sources
A basic problem of all statements on earlier water use and in particular the attitude of the people of that time to the question of water supply is the remarkably low written tradition from this area. It is true that, from the point of view of that time and also today, tremendously great hydraulic engineering efforts were often made, but it is usually not written down how they were implemented and organized, but above all, why this was done is usually not known. Questions about the provision of water seemed to be too unspectacular for the scholars of their time, were well known and therefore not worth mentioning. The early hydraulic engineers themselves hardly left any written documents of their own.
Statements are therefore primarily provided by archaeological finds of the corresponding hydraulic engineering systems as well as the oral and practical tradition of often centuries-old water management skills that can still be found today. Nevertheless, these areas of insight into the past are limited to very few well-examined areas, which harbors the risk of distorted perception. Also, the focus of archeology shifted very late on everyday life and the economic framework of the past. Another factor is that the detection of hydraulic structures using mostly geophysical investigation methods and aerial photographs is a very young field, with a correspondingly low number of investigations. It is often not possible to use them because the areas in question are often built over. In doing so, however, one can also fall back on the knowledge of the local population, especially if there was hardly any migration and urbanization and industrialization are not yet very advanced. However, achievements in water use that are no longer preserved today will remain unknown, which is why it is particularly difficult to determine a starting point for active interventions in the natural water balance. The current state of knowledge can therefore only be described as quite incomplete despite its considerable scope.
Guiding principles, scales and problem areas
The problem areas that are dissolved in the course of history through appropriate policies needed, it is all about questions of socket and distribution , the transport , the storage and disposal of water, the loading and drainage and the flood protection . In their entirety, these fields, with the exception of flood protection, are linked by the cycle principle . Ideally, every liter of water consumed must be replaced by a fully processed liter, i.e. the use of the water by people describes a cycle without “waste”. A somewhat more realistic, since above all cheaper, approach of the model aims to align the disposal of treated wastewater to the capacity of the ecosystems involved. In doing so, they should only be expected to be under the strain that they can cope with without any problems and over a longer period of time. Although the definition of a “longer period”, depending on the understanding of the term sustainability , is not without controversy, it is becoming apparent that this model represents one of the greatest innovations in water management in modern times.
In practice, however, the older flow model continues to exist and is still dominant on a global scale. This can be paraphrased with the simple formula “from the source to the settlement into the river”. Water is therefore a good that you have to extract and bring to the table with more or less effort, in order to then use it and dispose of it in nature as quickly as possible. This model of the type “out of sight, out of mind”, which is more or less based on simply washing away one's own rubbish, has been practiced since the beginning of water use. However, it reaches its limits if the flow is interrupted at one point or if the ecosystems that are inevitably "misused" as water treatment systems can no longer cope with the wastewater. The former was especially the case in the European metropolises of the Middle Ages without suitable drainage; The latter, however, in the 1960s and 1970s. In both cases, the consequences were disastrous.
It should be noted, however, that there was no viable alternative to the flow principle until recently. The technical possibilities were very limited, the knowledge about the cause and possible solutions was usually practically non-existent. For some water problems, a solution could only be found in the modern age, which today is more a question of costs and is therefore not implemented everywhere, especially in poorer countries.
Man and water
It is a historical feature of water use that almost all efforts were made before one knew about the exact relationships, especially the natural water cycle . Where the water came from and where it went was unknown for the greatest period in human history. So stands z. B. in the Old Testament in Ecclesiastes Solomon chapter 1, verse 7:
- All waters run into the sea, but the sea does not become fuller, they flow back to the place where they flow .
This knowledge gap was countered with natural mythology and, since the pre-Socratics , with natural philosophy .
Water is often of great importance in religions. This religious aspect is shown, for example, in the various flood myths and was probably much more pronounced in the early hydraulic engineering cultures than is the case today. The purifying power of water is often invoked, for example among Muslims in the form of ritual washing of feet before entering a mosque or in Hinduism during a ritual bath in the Ganges. Christian baptism was carried out until the late Middle Ages by immersion or pouring water over the body as a whole-body baptism , in the West today mostly only by sprinkling with water. Baptism means turning to Christ and being accepted into the Church. It is also symbolic of dying (immersion) and resurrection (arriving on the shore of new life). Holy water plays a special role in the Catholic and Orthodox Church . Above all, the purifying power of water has repeatedly given cause to reflect on the importance of water for life and also for life after death .
Today these are primarily traditional rituals, which, however, says little about their origin. For us, at least in the industrialized countries, dependence on water seems to have lost its importance. Nevertheless, the importance of water is still given, even if it often eludes our perception through the change in lifestyle, modern technologies and an at least partially sustainable use of water. However, this was not the case until a few centuries ago or, depending on the question, even decades. The dependence of people on water from the early advanced civilizations up to the more recent past was great, possibly complete. People were and still are proverbially tied to the accessibility of water resources for better or for worse, as can still be seen today in many arid countries on earth.
The motto “Water is life” was and is not a simple motto for the majority of people in agriculturally supported societies, but a lived principle. Only with this background can the history of water and its dominance in many areas of life be properly understood. Only in this way is it possible to correctly classify the ideas of these people regarding a nature that they could only mystically explain. The degree of dependence on natural fluctuations in the amount of precipitation as well as on high and low water was generally quite large, but is largely determined by the local climatic conditions. In the course of history, this has resulted in a large number of different water cultures, the specific water problems of which made specific demands.
Prehistory and early history
In the Neolithic Age , with the onset of agriculture , the need for irrigation gradually became clear. This process began at several points with the end of the last Ice Age, but its foundations go back to roughly 20,000 BC. BC back. The actual “ Neolithic Revolution ” dates back to around the 11th to 8th millennium BC. BC, but with strong regional differences. In most cases, it can only be speculated whether and how hydraulic engineering measures were already in place at this early stage.
Mesopotamia
The two-river land between the Euphrates and Tigris is quite fertile and has had technologies for more effective irrigation of the fields since the end of the fourth millennium, so that larger cities could also form for the first time. Crafts and trade gained more and more importance and the cities became more and more prosperous. Each of these settlements had political independence. There was no unified empire of Sumer or Babylonia at this time. Herodotus still reported around 450 BC. From the grain wealth of the country, which was probably unparalleled in the ancient world. Without irrigation, especially in the north-east of the area, productive agriculture cannot be maintained. The precipitation here is around 100 to 200 mm per year, which is by no means sufficient. The people consequently used the water of the rivers and applied it in large quantities to their fields.
A system of hydraulic engineering measures was set up which ensured the supply surprisingly well over a long period of time. Around 3000 BC As a result, 30,000 km² were probably already cultivated in southern Mesopotamia, and a regulation of the rivers Euphrates and Tigris can be proven. The supervision and control was in the hands of an elite priesthood and became increasingly centralized. Their tasks included the planning and construction of canals and dikes, the question of the distribution of water and consequently also the cultivation of the fields and the land, the monitoring of all facilities as well as the recording and distribution of the harvest including storage.
The importance of this irrigation and flood protection system is made by the Codex Hammurapi of King Hammurapi of Babylon around the year 1700 BC. BC clearly, because despite all the political upheavals and conquests, it was always respected and refined at first. In addition to comprehensive legal provisions, the Codex also contains standards for the maintenance of irrigation systems. Similar laws existed much earlier, but they have hardly survived. In this context, one speaks of a “ water civilization ”.
The irrigation measures in Mesopotamia involved a more or less controlled evaporation and infiltration. However, such a technique has the disadvantage that the salts dissolved in the river water accumulate in the soil over time, meaning that salinization occurs. Although these salts are only found in very low concentrations in the river water, they inevitably accumulate due to the high evaporation rates and the centuries of irrigation. Another problem arose from the fact that the meltwater from the Armenian highlands appeared in April to June, a period when the fields had long been cultivated. Together with the low valley gradient of around 1: 26,000, there were very large flood plains. In order to protect the harvest, flood protection measures had to be taken, which in turn prevented the salts from being washed out of the soil by avoiding flooding.
| Year before Chr. | kg / ha total yield | Wheat / barley ratio |
|---|---|---|
| 3500 | unknown | 1: 1 |
| 2400 | 2400 | 1: 6 |
| 2100 | 1000 | 1:50 |
| 1700 | 700 | barley only |
In order to irrigate rivers, the mean or even low water had to be withdrawn from rivers during periods of little rain, only to then be able to master the high water. The Sumerians probably did not have a suitable drainage technique over a large area , even though drainage measures on the burial mound of Ur around 1900 BC. Were proven. However, these techniques to avoid salinization would not have been used because there was in all likelihood no awareness of the problem. The process of soil salinization turned out to be tedious, and from the perspective of a human life the effect was hardly noticeable. This can be seen in the proportion of grains cultivated, especially the comparison between wheat and salt-resistant barley (see table on the right).
Despite these restrictions and despite all changes, the facilities of the Sumerians, Babylonians , Assyrians , Chaldeans and all subsequent peoples were preserved for a long period of time. At the time of the Chaldeans (around 600 BC), 40,000 km² were irrigated and used for agriculture, even if the cultivation areas were forced to migrate along the rivers. However, this finally changed when the Mongols destroyed the irrigation systems in 1256, i.e. after at least 4500 years of systematic irrigation, in such a way that the population subsequently fell from 25 to around 1.5 million people. Even today the old irrigation systems have not been restored.
The example of Mesopotamia shows the long period of time in which water management has to be considered, and at the same time also that in addition to the water supply itself, other aspects such as the soil have to be taken into account. The lesson from this today is that in the absence of natural drainage, no irrigation system without an appropriate drainage system may - or at least should.
See also: Garden art in the Middle East
Egypt
The Nile is the foundation of ancient Egypt's prosperity and the linchpin of the entire history of ancient Egypt . Here, too, as in Mesopotamia, complex social and hydraulic structures are built up. The basis of the hydraulic engineering system were the fluctuations in the Nile level, which were recorded with various water level measuring points along the course of the river. The nilometers play a special role .
See also: Garden Art in Ancient Egypt
Persia and Armenia
The use of water in the high plains of Persia and Armenia is closely linked to the technique of qanats . These vertical well systems deep under the ground supplied the nearby settlements from the mountains, which also made agriculture possible here. In addition to the up to 5000 years old qanats (see there for details), the 40 km long and at least 3250 year old aqueduct of Tschoga Zanbil is also worth mentioning. The 1000 year old water distribution network of Milan in eastern Azerbaijan is also a remarkable hydraulic structure.
Public water supply in the 19th century
The 19th century was marked by new discoveries in disease prevention and the emergence of public health care. From the mid-19th century onwards, governments recognized the need to systematically develop public health care. While the measures for this purpose in Western Europe were initially limited to quarantine regulations in ports for the control and exclusion of sick or potentially sick people, new measures were aimed at expanding infrastructural facilities, in particular measures to establish clean public water supply and disposal, which deprived diseases of their breeding ground should. Public water supply became the task of the state, while until then it was left to private and religious initiative. Starting in Great Britain, the new priorities from the 1830s were the removal of rubbish and sewage in cities and the supply of harmless drinking water. The side effects of early industrialization were recognized and gradually, albeit with resistance, tackled. First of all, water had to be recognized as a public good. Only on this basis could a water policy with comprehensive legal provisions for the ownership and use of water emerge. Private ownership claims had to be revoked, a lengthy and complicated process that in Western Europe sometimes dragged on into the 20th century, for example in France. Adequate technologies in the form of modern water supply had to be added. In 1842, New York was the first city to have an extensive pipe system, aqueducts, reservoirs and connected public fountains.
The value of technical water purification has been impressively confirmed since it was known in 1849 that cholera is transmitted through water. Nevertheless, it took decades, for example in London until 1868 and in Munich even until 1881 ( Munich's water supply ), until the new knowledge had prevailed against a often radical market liberalism and suitable measures could be taken. In London around 1800 salmon could still be fished and swam in the Thames , while around 1858 the stench rose from the river so strong that the House of Commons put sheets on its covers and the meetings there had to be broken off because of the stench. It was only this event that led to the commissioning of the construction of an underground sewer system to improve urban hygiene.
Outside of Western Europe, cities had, in some cases, taken action much earlier to improve urban hygiene by means of water supply and disposal. Persian Isfahan was praised for its water supply in reports prior to the Afghan destruction in 1722. In Damascus , a city with then 15,000 inhabitants, every street, every mosque, every public and private house was supplied in abundance with canals and fountains in 1872. A public organized water supply was set up in Bombay as early as 1859. A sewage system was built in Calcutta in 1865 and a water filter system in 1869. The same thing happened in Shanghai in 1883, but there by private investors and only for a few rich Chinese and Europeans living there. The Chinese have been cautious about the renewals.
literature
- Erich Hornsmann : Water. A problem every time . Lehnen-Verlag, Munich 1956
- Antje Richter / Ulrich Hübner (eds.): Water. Food, cultural property, political weapon . EB-Verlag, Schenefeld / Hamburg 2003 (= Asia and Africa 9), ISBN 3-930826-83-6
Individual evidence
- ↑ Jürgen Osterhammel: The transformation of the world. A story of the 19th century. CH Beck. 2nd edition of the 2016 special edition. ISBN 978-3-406-61481-1 . P. 260
- ↑ Jürgen Osterhammel: The transformation of the world. A story of the 19th century. CH Beck. 2nd edition of the 2016 special edition. ISBN 978-3-406-61481-1 . P. 262
- ↑ Jürgen Osterhammel: The transformation of the world. A story of the 19th century. CH Beck. 2nd edition of the 2016 special edition. ISBN 978-3-406-61481-1 . P. 263
- ↑ Jürgen Osterhammel: The transformation of the world. A story of the 19th century. CH Beck. 2nd edition of the 2016 special edition. ISBN 978-3-406-61481-1 . P. 264