Indonesian literature

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The Indonesian literature is the literature of modern Indonesia , the vast majority in modern Indonesian official language ( Bahasa Indonesia is written). Indo-Javanese and Islamic-Malay literature belong to its forerunners.

The hot and humid climate of the equatorial zone meant that paper was not used as a medium for the transmission of texts because it rots quickly. So the oral tradition plays a dominant role. Puppet and shadow plays, recitation competitions and lectures with music were and are very popular to this day. For the recipients, the active participation in these performances is an important moment in their identity formation and preservation. The demarcation of genres such as poetry, epic, theater, music, recitation up to mask, puppet and shadow play is therefore difficult.

Prehistory: languages ​​and scripts

Since the 7th century, two written languages ​​have been dominant in the Indonesian archipelago, which is populated by around 200 different ethnic groups with as many languages ​​and numerous dialects: Javanese (in Java and on neighboring islands) and Malay , especially on Sumatra . Sundanese is also spoken in West Java , which is very different from Javanese.

Java had come under the influence of Hinduism and Indian culture since the 4th century. The oldest known script comes from this time. It was a form of the Indian Devanagari , a syllabary with a vowel a inherent in every consonant or with vowels marked by diacritical marks. Sanskrit became the language of the elites in Java and later in Bali . From the 7th and 8th centuries, Buddhist influences from India and China were added. However, Buddhism only survived in Bali and Lombok . The Sundanese-speaking provinces of West Java have been less influenced by Hinduism. Only a few literary works were created here; on the other hand, the unwritten literature of legends and fairy tales was preserved here for a long time.

From the 15th century, in the course of Islamization, Javanese was also written in a variant of the Arabic script ( pégon or gundil ). The current form of the Javanese script emerged in the 17th century. Since the Dutch introduced the Latin alphabet in Indonesia in the 19th century, the traditional Javanese script has been displaced more and more. It was even banned during the Japanese occupation of Indonesia between 1942 and 1945.

Writing systems derived from Indian scripts were also used for the Batak languages. The literate people used these scriptures primarily for magical-religious purposes (lamentations, etc.).

The oldest ancient Malay inscriptions, which have been written in Indian scripts since the 7th century, also have ritual functions. The Arabic script was used for Middle and Neo Malay until the end of the Dutch colonization at the end of the 19th century.

Indo-Javanese literature

The development and flowering of the so far little researched Indo-Javanese literature was closely connected with the Hindu empires in Java and South Sumatra between the 9th and 16th centuries, especially with the empire of Majapahit in East Java (1294–1520). The oldest inscriptions are handed down on stone. Wood, animal hides, bamboo and palm leaves were also used.

This so-called old Javanese literature was shaped by recreations of the old Indian myths Mahabharata and Ramayana , written in Sanskrit . Under the influence of Sanskrit, Old Javanese in the 14th century produced an archaic, ceremonial form of language with many Sanskrit loanwords, the Kawi researched by Wilhelm von Humboldt , which was probably only intended for poetic use. Since the 14th century, however, Javanese stories of rulers and heroes have come to the fore (so-called New Javanese literature), beginning with the song of praise Nagara-Kertagama by Rakawi Prapañca to King Hayam Wuruk of Majapahit.

The legend of Damarwulan ("moonlight") from the 15th century, manuscript in Javanese language and script from the British Library , probably late 18th century
Damarwulan , Wayang Klitik (shadow play figure ) from East Java.

The heroes of myths and epics are also the most important characters in puppet and shadow play, the wayang . This is the name given to the combination of puppetry and acting with improvisation, dance and music, which had its origins in the early days of the animistic local religions and was used by Hindu priests as an instrument of conversion. In addition, numerous fables, fairy tales and animal stories from the time of tribal history have been handed down in simple prose language.

Starting from Malacca , Sumatra was first Islamized in the 15th century ; Since the 16th century, the Malay-Islamic cultural influence has also dominated in other parts of the archipelago except for Bali and Lombok. The epic reached a climax in rhyming stories of rulers and heroes such as the legend of Hang Tuah ("Hykayat Hang Tuah "), a material from the 15th century that was not written down on paper until the 19th century. Different rhyme schemes were developed for recitation and written literature . The four-line pantun with the rhyme scheme, adopted from Malay poetry, was widespread[abab]and 8 to 12 syllables per verse, which was mainly used in the orally recited love poetry. On the other hand, puppetry experienced a decline on the main islands, as images of gods in human form were not tolerated by Islam. It was replaced by the shadow play with cut out figures. Above all, the court writer of Surakarta , Raden Nagabehi Jasadipura I (1729–1803), contributed to the revival of the Javanese wayang. Javanese literature passed down on palm leaf copies also experienced a renaissance in the 18th and 19th centuries. In remote regions, however, the puppet show survived.

The ancient Malay literature

The ancient Malay literature ( Sastra Melayu Lama ), which can only be traced back to inscriptions from the 7th century and then increasingly since the end of the 9th century, originated in the Indianized states of Sumatra and contains loan words from Sanskrit. These are mostly shamanistic formulas, but there are also oral traditions from this time. From the early 15th to the 16th century, literature was Islamized and written down. The oldest chronicle from this time, the Hikayat Raja-raja Pasai , that of the Sultanate Pasai in Sumatra, serves to legitimize the founder of the dynasty, whose conversion to Islam is the focus. Since then, historiography has been an important part of ancient Malay literature.

The Malay poetry of the following classical period, which was influenced by Arabic and Persian models, was, like the pantun, often performed by singers with instrumental accompaniment. It reached its peak and end in the 19th century in the form of Syair , the four-line punch. In addition, Sufi literature and epics were received and modified, and rulers' chronicles were created. The most important author was Raja Ali Haji (1808–73), a member of the Bugi from the Sultanate of Riau (East Sumatra). In his chronicle Tuhfat al-Nafis he reports u. a. of the armed conflicts between the Bugi in South Sulawesi and the Malays of Riau, which only ended with the Dutch colonization.

The altmalaiische literature was perceived in the colonial era, but also in the founding period of Indonesia mostly from the pejorative perspective of the indigenous element (English and Dutch) by colonial literature, which overestimated the Indian influence, and only after the establishment of Malaysia Malaysian scientists adequately explored.

Development of the uniform written language and the struggle for cultural identity

In the 19th century, the Dutch East Indies had no central administration. It was not a Dutch territory, let alone a cultural area, but a collection of trading posts, plantations and military posts. The colonization was not completed until 1911; Riau was one of the last regions in which a colonial administration was established and at the same time became a birthplace of the national language movement. In 1908 a colonial bureau for (Indonesian) folk literature was established. In addition, some well-known western entertainment novels and books for young people have been translated into Malay. The use of the Dutch language, however, should be reserved for the elite; the number of speakers rose from only about 5,000 in 1900 to about 860,000 in 1942. The influence of the Dutch language and literature remained correspondingly small.

Until around 1920, authors who wanted to publish books in publishers largely used Commercial Malay as the lingua franca . After that, the so-called generation Angkatan Balai Pustakasie began with language experiments in search of new means of expression. The poet, playwright and critic of colonial politics Rustam Effendi (1903–1979) wrote in Old Malay, which he enriched and alienated with elements of Arabic and Sanskrit in order to achieve the desired rhythmic effects. Suwarsih Djojopuspito (1912–1977) wrote in Sundanese. She wrote a novel about the anti-colonial "wild schools" in the liberation struggle.

At the same time, the European influence on the literature of the archipelago grew, conveyed primarily through the British Malaya. As a result, the archipelago's literature experienced a thematic and formal modernization. B. through new topics such as nature and landscape. Bala Pustaha , the colonial publishing house, promoted the "export" of literature, but did not shy away from censorship either.

The Javanese prince Noto Soeroto (1888–1951), who had studied in Holland, wrote in Dutch, as did Chairil Anwar (1922–1949), who until his untimely death wrote over 70 poems and a few other works, including Western existentialist ones as well as processed Japanese and Chinese influences. The feminist and national heroine Raden Ajeng Kartini (1879–1904) and the politician Sutan Syahrir (“Our Struggle” 1945) also wrote in Dutch. Some of this work has been translated into English and other languages. Anwar again translated Rilke into Indonesian.

Chairil Anwar

Since the 1920s, a language movement aimed at reforming and standardizing the language of the archipelago grew stronger. The discussion about the future cultural identity of the archipelago came to a head in the period after 1933 until the establishment of the committee of inquiry to prepare for the independence of Indonesia under the Japanese occupation in June 1945. The Japanese, Muslims and Christians argued about the interpretation of the work of Chairil Anwar, who was seen as an anti-colonial champion of the unified state with a uniform language or as a protagonist of their respective religions. The leader of the independence movement and first president of Indonesia Sukarno feared that if the Islamic influence were too dominant, Bali, which is mostly non-Muslim, could leave the Indonesian association. So they agreed on the formula of the five principles ( Pancasila ), according to which Indonesia should first and foremost become a nationalist state with a single language, based on the five major world (and written) religions.

The movement that posed the question of cultural identity in literature, the so-called Generation Angkatan Pujangga Baru (1930s), included the poet Sanussi Pane (1905–1968), who, with his brother, the novelist Armijn Pane , was the first in 1937 wrote modern Indonesian drama; furthermore Muhammad Yamin (1903–1962), Rustam Effendi and the important poet Amir Hamzah (1911–1946), who - influenced by Arabic, Persian and Hindu literature - published love poems and other poems on existential topics as well as some short stories. He joined the nationalist movement in Java around 1930, founded a literary magazine in 1933 and later married the daughter of the Sultan of Langkat in North Sumatra . Temporarily in Japanese custody, he was appointed government representative in 1945. Communist insurgents murdered him in 1946 for allegedly cooperating with the Dutch.

Many of the nationalist activists, such as Anwar and Hamzah, came from Sumatra, where a Malay language was spoken that was very different from Javanese and Sundanese. Not least because of this influence, the Malay dialect of Riau became the state language Bahasa Indonesia in 1945 and thus the basis of national literature. At that time, however, only a minority of the archipelago's inhabitants spoke; today it is probably over 80%.

From independence to the end of the dictatorship

To the revolutionary generation 45 ( Angkatan '45 ) of the writers, who had actively supported the liberation struggle, belonged u. a. Amir Hamzah, Chairil Anwar, Sitor Situnorang and the member of the Batak people Mochtar Lubis (Mohtar Lubis), editor of the literary magazine Horison since the 1950s and author of a book about corrupt Jakarta ( Senja di Jakarta , Twilight in Jakarta 1963), which was the first Indonesian novel to be translated into English. This generation defined itself as the heirs of a high culture, which was in considerable contrast to the state of popular education and the development of reading behavior at that time.

Towards the end of the 1950s and early 1960s, a dangerous cultural war came to a head over the question of whether Indonesia should strive for a socialist or liberal democracy. This question was made obsolete by the Soehartos coup in 1966 and the persecution of communists and socialists. A large number of civilians took part in the massacres of the death squads ; any doubt about the official version of the alleged coup attempt by a communist movement on September 30 (1965) was forbidden. School books continued to contain historical lies long after 2000 . In the 1970s and 1980s the regime was firmly in the saddle. In the 1990s, in the face of growing social unrest, Soeharto increasingly relied on Islam and tried to retain Muslim intellectuals. So far, the phases of the dictatorship, including the role of the old elites and the influence of foreigners, especially the CIA , have hardly been dealt with politically, but literature has been more and more concerned since 1998.

Taufiq Ismail (2016)

The authors of Generation 66 ( Angkatan '66 -'70-an ) supported the students in the fight against the Soeharto dictatorship and for human rights. These include Sitor Situmorang (1923–2014), Taufiq Ismail (* 1937), Goenawan Mohamad (* 1941) and the popular playwright Putu Wijaya (* 1944) from Bali. With his work Telegram (1976), like Iwan Simatupang (1928–1970) from Sumatra, he is one of the representatives of magical realism , whose work mixes realistic narration and fiction. As an avowed nationalist, Simatupang was already in prison during the Dutch attempt to prevent Indonesia's independence.

The poet, psychologist, philosopher and feminist Toeti Heraty (* 1933) and the poet and translator Sapardi Djoko Damono (* 1940) introduced the urban reality of expanding cities as a theme in literature. Heraty's poetry is considered difficult to decipher, full of ambiguities and irony. Her lyrical prose work Calon Arang , the 12th-century story of a woman who was sacrificed as a supposed witch, was also published in English in 2006. Damono's poems are more popular, sometimes aggressive; they were used variously as templates for lyrics.

These authors were even surpassed in fame by Willibrordus S. Rendra (1935–2009) (Rendra for short), probably the most popular and versatile poet, actor, performer, playwright, director and translator. He orientated himself on the Greek dramaturgy and the great playwrights of world literature as well as on the western avant-garde. Under Soeharto he was arrested and banned from performing. Since the 1970s he switched to the field of poetry and became known for his text-aesthetic innovations. Günter Grass visited him in the poor district during the Suharto regime; at times he was traded as a Nobel Prize candidate.

Pramoedya Ananta Toer (1925–2006) (Pram for short), who fought against the Japanese at a young age and learned 20 languages, was imprisoned under Soeharto for 14 years - from 1965–79. He has also been nominated several times for the Nobel Prize for Literature and, along with Rendra, was the best-known figure among Indonesian authors. He wrote Bukan Pasar Malam , in which he articulated the disappointment with the new state and its corrupt and unjust health care system, as well as the Buru tetralogy about the infamous prison island Buru and poetry, which was also translated into German.

The Balinese Putu Oka Sukanta (* 1939), who was imprisoned for ten years after the 1966 coup, wrote poetry and short stories, a selection of which were translated by the Goethe-Institut in 1987 . After his release, he engaged in traditional Chinese medicine, which earned him another arrest. In the 1990s he also worked as a documentary filmmaker. The filmmaker Ramadhan KH (Ramadhan Karta Hadimadja, 1927–2006), who also worked as a poet and translator, became famous for his series of film portraits of Indonesian authors and actors .

The dance master Bulantrisna Djelanti (* 1949), granddaughter of the last king of the Karangasem reign of Bali, plays the role of Calon Arang in a dance drama based on Heraty's version of the popular tale (2016)
theatre

In the 1960s and 70s, a modern Indonesian theater was created that combined with elements of traditional (traveling) theater. One of the pioneers of (campus) theater and modern television in Indonesia was the media manager and sociologist Umar Kayam (1932–2002), who also emerged as a writer of short stories and novels. But even in Jakarta with its approx. 20 million inhabitants there are hardly any buildings that can be used for the modern theater. A theater and event building from 1821 is used there today for concerts and ballet performances. It is played in campus theaters such as the Surakarta Art School , in school and sports halls or in the open air.

present

The fall of Soeharto in 1998 and the subsequent democratization as well as the increasing use of digital media led to a considerable increase in literature production by the so-called reform generation ( Angkatan Reformasi ). The next generation of the 80s ( Dasawarsa '80 -an ), who worked in a climate of gradual liberalization, included Ahmad Tohari (* 1948), a deeply religious novelist ( Jantera Bianglala , 1986) who advocated the association of a modern, tolerant Islam with traditional popular belief, Dorothea Rosa Herliany (* 1963), a Catholic who radically questions the conventional image of women and broke numerous taboos, Agus R. Sarjono (* 1963), an important poet, essayist and editor of Rilke's adaptations and Goethe wrote in Indonesian and stayed in Germany in 2002/03 as a fellow of the Böll Foundation, and the prose writer, poet and playwright Afrizal Malna (* 1957). This generation had not experienced either the colonial oppression or the liberation struggle of the founding generation; for them it was already a matter of course to express themselves in the Indonesian language.

It was only after Soeharto was overthrown that many Chinese recognized their culture again, despite the massive prejudices that still existed. Now the role of Peranakan literature, the slang Malay literature of the descendants of the British Malaya-born Chinese who emigrated to Indonesia (such as Arief Budiman , * 1941) has been partially recognized.

Indonesia does not see itself as a cultural nation: there is little read (if so, mostly by women), there is no state funding for literature, no libraries, no nationwide book trade except in the big cities of Java and Sumatra. Literature in the narrower sense has remained a matter for the elite in the metropolitan areas. But the performative power of the specific Indonesian combination of language, theater and dance has its own impact. Internet, social networks, even cell phones all contribute to the spread of this hybrid culture. Many authors work as bloggers , e.g. B. Eka Kurniawan (* 1975). Joko Anwar (* 1976) became popular as a screenwriter and director .

The amalgamation of genres in the tradition of the Wayang encouraged the development of modern performance artists, in which Indonesia is very rich today. To be mentioned here are Rahman Arge , Wawan Sofwan (* 1965), who also appeared in classical dramas in Europe, Sosiawan Leak (* 1967) and Godi Sowarna . The topics are often taken from the old fund. However, while young intellectuals from the big cities oppose the Arabization of Islam, Muslim parties are promoting such Islamization, to which traditional costumes and national costumes sometimes fall victim as "pornography".

In 2002 a first poetry festival took place in Makassar , Bandung and several other regions. Dorothea Rosa Herliany is still considered the most important contemporary Indonesian poet. The short story is also more widely used, for example by Leila S. Chudori , Joni Ariadinata (* 1966), Azhari (* 1981) from Banda Aceh , a tsunami survivor of 2004.

Today more women than men participate in cultural and literary life: Ida Ayu Oka Rusmini (* 1967) deals with the patriarchal culture of her country. Linda Christanty (* 1970) also writes against Islamization and Sharia in the province of Aceh. The author and filmmaker Djenar Maesa Ayu (* 1973) became known for her provocative stories and films. The musician and poet Dewi Lestari (* 1976) wrote a pop literary series of novels with provocative and exotic themes. In 2014 she was present at the Frankfurt Book Fair. Laksmi Pamuntjak (* 1971), who also writes in English, can be seen as a representative of literary postmodernism. Their restaurant guides first became known. She also appeared as a translator and editor of the poems of Goenawan Mohamad. Her haunting novel Amba (2012, German: Alle Farben Rot , 2015) is based on her own family history and deals with the long-term effects of the mass murder of probably 500,000 people who were disreputed as communists and terrorists in 1965/66 after Suharto came to power . This went unpunished for 50 years, the perpetrators are sometimes still celebrated like heroes. The book questions the ideal of a unified Indonesian nation. The challenge posed by a radicalized Islam is also indicated. Many women authors try to counter the radical propaganda against women, e.g. B. through the publication of popular books that propagate the position of Islamic feminism.

In her first novel, Pulang, Leila S. Chudori also deals with the aftermath of the mass murders and how we deal with memories. The journalist Feby Indirani (* 1979) achieved several successes as a non-fiction author . a. through I can (not) hear .

Abroad, Indonesian literature is mainly noticed in Malaysia, Australia and the Netherlands. Some authors are now also writing in English.

Translations into German

Ayu Utami (2005)
Andrea Hirata (2012)

Some translations of Indonesian literature into German appeared as early as the 1960s to 1980s. In 1999, Umar Kayam's bestseller, published in 1992, was translated about the colonial era and the development of Indonesia up to the 1970s (“A touch of power”). In 2007 the extremely successful work Saman by the journalist Ayu Utami (* 1968) was translated into German. Utami was affected by publication bans under Suharto . Immediately after his fall in Saman in 1998, she took up taboo topics such as female sexuality and the situation of religious and ethnic minorities and thus gave the impetus for the feminist Sastra Wangi movement (“scented literature”). Many Indonesian women like to read her work, even though the choice of topics is narrowed and occasionally clichéd pop literary.

In addition to Laksmi Pamuntjak's Amba (2015) a. a. Oka Rusminis (* 1967) novel "Erdentanz" ( Tarian Bumi . 2003, Ger. 2007) about the situation of women in Bali shaped by the caste system and Andrea Hirata's "Die Regenbogentruppe" and "Der Däumer" (Ger. 2013). The two volumes of Hirata describe the educational history of a miner's son from the tin mine on the island of Belitung , which is controlled by an international corporation, on his way to high school. The first novel was made into a film and shown at the Berlinale in 2008 under the title “The Rainbow Warriors” .

The most important works in German translation (from English by Guido Keller, all published in 2015 by Angkor Verlag Frankfurt) include:

In 2011 a Jakarta Berlin Arts Festival took place in Berlin , where some Indonesian authors introduced themselves. Andrea Hirata was a guest at the Leipzig Book Fair in 2013. In 2015, Indonesia was the guest country at the Frankfurt Book Fair .

Literary prizes

The most famous Indonesian literary prize, which has been awarded since 2001, is the Kusala Sastra Khatulistiwa in various categories. The Jakarta Arts Council also awards a prize; there are also state prices.

literature

University publications
  • Helga Blazy: The image of the child in modern Indonesian literature (= publications of the seminar for Indonesian and South Sea languages ​​of the University of Hamburg , volume 16). Reimer, Ramburg / Berlin 1992, ISBN 3-496-00425-8 (dissertation University of Cologne 1990, 274 pages, 21 cm).
Anthologies
  • Harry Aveling (Ed.): From Surabaya to Armageddon: Indonesian Short Stories. Writing in Asia Series, Heinemann 1996.
  • Berthold Damshäuser, Ramadhan Karta Hadimaja (Ed.): Give me back Indonesia! An anthology of modern Indonesian poetry. Translated and introduced by Berthold Damshäuser. Horlemann, Unkel / Bad Honnef 1994, ISBN 3-92790-589-5 .

See also

Web links

Commons : Indonesian Literature  - collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Rainer Carle: The Toba-Batak touring theater in North Sumatra: Drama to preserve cultural identity in the national Indonesian context. Dramatic texts, short comments and documentation. 1990. ISBN 978-3496001799
  2. ↑ Tammo Jacob Bezemer: Folk poetry from Indonesia. (1904) Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 90 ff. Paperback edition 2011, ISBN 978-1-4474-3412-2 .
  3. ↑ Wilhelm von Humboldt: About the Kawi language on the island of Java, along with an introduction about the diversity of the human language structure and its influence on the spiritual development of the human race . Volume 1, Berlin 1836.
  4. ↑ Universal Lexicon: Indonesian Literature , accessed June 28, 2015.
  5. ↑ Carle 1996, p. 725.
  6. ↑ Carle 1996, p. 727.
  7. ↑ Carle 1996, p. 727.
  8. ↑ Fritz Schulze: Descent and Islamization as motives for legitimizing rule in traditional Malay historiography. Wiesbaden 2004, p. 24 ff.
  9. ↑ Schulze 2004, p. 18.
  10. ^ The Dutch and the Dutch in the world: Asia. FU Berlin, Nederlands online (NEON): [1] , accessed on June 23, 2015.
  11. ↑ Carle 1996, p. 731.
  12. ↑ Jankowski 2014, p. 145.
  13. ↑ Carle 1996, p. 731.
  14. ↑ Jankowski 2014, p. 79.
  15. ↑ Katrin Bandel: Medicine and Magic in Modern Indonesian Prose. Books on Demand, 2004.
  16. ↑ Rendra: Secular Chants and Pamphlets. Berlin 1991.
  17. ↑ Christine Winkelmann: Cultural Identity Constructions in the Post-Suharto Period: Indonesians of Chinese descent between assimilation and reflection on their roots. Wiesbaden 2008, p. 74 ff.
  18. ↑ Jankowski 2014, p. 8 ff.
  19. ↑ Jankowski 2014, p. 55.
  20. ↑ Nikola Richter: Wut und Welle , in: Der Tagesspiegel , April 24, 2010, online: [2] , accessed on June 22, 2015.
  21. ↑ Feby Indirani on www.goodreads.com , accessed on July 1, 2015.
  22. ↑ This also includes Dewi Lestari, Fira Basuki and Djenar Maesa Ayu. See Becky Lipscombe: Chick-lit becomes hip lit in Indonesia. In: BBC News, September 10, 2003 [3]
  23. ↑ The Rainbow Warriors on imdb.com
  24. ↑ http://www.jakarta-berlin.de
  25. ↑ Islands of Imagination ( Memento of September 4, 2015 in the Internet Archive ), Indonesian website for the book fair (English, Indonesian), accessed on September 8, 2018.