Kemanak

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Two Javanese kemanak . Tropical Museum , Amsterdam, before 1958

Kemanak , also gumanak, kenawak ( Indonesian ), is an idiophonic serve played in a few ensemble types ( gamelan ) on the Indonesian islands of Java and Bali , which consists of a metal strip rolled up on the long sides. This results in a slotted tube that is held by a curved handle. The spoon-like percussion instruments are struck on Java with a wooden stick wrapped in fabric, on Bali with a thin metal stick. Two musicians take turns playing a kemanak to mark the shortest units of the bar cycle. Compositions with a fixed time frame structured by kemanak are called gendhing kemanak . In Java the banana-shaped kemanak is used in a gamelan to accompany the courtly dance styles bedhaya and serimpi , and in Bali the shorter, straight gumanak is part of the time-honored gamelan gambuh .

The name has been documented since the 12th century, relief images of kemanak have been handed down to East Javanese Hindu temples from the 14th century . Idiophone from bronze and perhaps those of kemanak type can be found on Java since pre-Christian times.

origin

Forged bronze ax from Indonesia, 1st – 3rd centuries. Century AD Los Angeles County Museum of Art

The earliest percussion instruments were idiophones made of stone or wood ( rattling ) of similar size that were beaten in pairs or self-sounding bodies that were struck with another, non-sounding object. Counterstrike bars in the hands of dancers are around 3000 BC. Depicted on predynastic Egyptian vases, rattles have been preserved as archaeological finds from Mesopotamia since that time . In Bronze Age Babylonia (before 2000 BC) there were always paired, flat curved rattles or cymbals made of wood or bronze, some with a wooden handle.

The musical instruments made of bamboo (impact idiophones, rattles , pipes, zithers , flutes), which are still widely used throughout Southeast Asia , come from the oldest cultural layer, which dates back to the Stone Age. The earliest musical instruments made of bronze are difficult to classify in terms of time. Only those with the Dong-Son culture in southern China in the second half of the 1st millennium BC So-called bronze drums that were widespread in BC can be roughly dated. In Indonesia, bronze objects are found in many sites together with iron tools, i.e. at a relatively advanced stage of metalworking, but presumably before the Indian cultural influence that was noticeable in the first centuries after Christianity. The Chinese bronze drums made using the lost wax process were the models for Javanese gong rows such as kenong and bonang . Early finds of cast bronze gongs with a high hump in Java were obviously unsuitable as musical instruments, which is why it was assumed that they were unfinished and perhaps should have been forged with thinner walls. In any case, after these unsuccessful attempts to cast bronze gongs, the development of hand-forged bronze musical instruments began in Java.

The Dutch naturalist Georg Eberhard Rumpf (1627–1702) explained the origin of the bronze axes in Indonesia, which are important for cultural history and equipped with magical power for their owners: Metallic vapors would condense in clouds to form bronze axes and then fall to the earth with lightning strikes Shaped by the strong wind that always accompanies a thunderstorm. Even though Rumpf was the first to send a bronze drum of unclear origin as a gift to the Grand Duke of Tuscany in 1682 , its actual research did not begin until the end of the 19th century. The culture to which they are assigned is named after the village of Đông Sơn in North Vietnam, where the first bronze objects were excavated in Southeast Asia in 1924. The old Indonesian bronze objects consist of around 75 percent copper and 25 percent lead. There were few copper deposits on the islands; Bronze was therefore rare, expensive and mostly had to be imported. Molds for making the typical Dong-Son drums have not been found on Java.

The earliest finds of bronze musical instruments are pre- Hindu in terms of time and typology , i.e. they existed before the Indian cultural influence that settlers from southern India probably brought to the Malay Archipelago in the first centuries AD . Indian immigrants settled in Java during the 5th century. Probably the oldest known representation of Hindu-Javanese musical instruments are small bronze bells in a relief on a temple on the Dieng Plateau from the end of the 7th or beginning of the 8th century. A little later built temples on the Dieng Plateau show a wide range of Indian and Javanese musical instruments. The oldest images of kemanak can be found at the main temple of the East Javanese Candi Penataran (near Bitlar), which was created in the middle of the 14th century during the Majapahit empire. The musician pictured next to the kemanak player strikes a small gong ( beri ) held in his left hand with a hook-shaped stick in his right hand . Other musical figures are shown with small cymbals , the humpback gong row reyong , the trough xylophone gambang made of bamboo panels, a straight trumpet (or cone oboe) and a probably single-headed drum struck with a stick. A multi-string zither can also be seen on East Javanese reliefs from this period as a forerunner of today's celempung .

The bronze objects found in East Java from the time of the Kediri Empire (1042–1222) and the subsequent Singhasari Empire (1222–1292), including kemanak in the Malang district, as well as bronze slit drums and hanging bells, correspond to the images on the temples. The names of musical instruments on inscriptions and in literature are older than the relief representations. The word kemanak is first mentioned in the East Javanese didactic poem Wretasancaya from the middle of the 12th century; Furthermore, the bamboo tube zither guntang (mentioned in the Sunda clothing shortly after 1357) and the frame drum terbang ( Smaradahana , dated 1135) are known by name to this day. Other sources from the 12th to 16th centuries that mention small ensembles with bronze percussion instruments to accompany shadow play ( wayang kulit ) are the Baratayuda (an adaptation of the Indian epic Mahabharata ) and the Wangbang Wideya (a story from the Javanese Panji -Cycle). According to Jaap Kunst (1960), the kemanak is likely to be much older and the type of instrument could go back to the Dong-Son culture of the pre-Christian times, even if there is no concrete material evidence for this.

Design

To make a kemanak , a thick sheet of metal, the surface of which forms a wide oval with a narrow extension as a stem, is rolled up on both sides so that the longitudinal edges are opposite each other and only a slot remains open between them. When viewed from the side, the Javanese type, which is around 20 centimeters long, has the shape of a banana, which with the curved handle becomes a spoon. The Balinese gumanak is only 13 centimeters long and consists of a straight, cylindrically rolled sheet of metal. The specimens found in Malang in Eastern Java are also approximately cylindrical with a sloping stem. After the sound is generated, both variants form a very small slotted drum. Kemanak are generally made from bronze, sometimes from copper, regionally in West Java from iron and in Bali from bronze or iron.

Functionally comparable small percussion instruments are cymbals, which rarely appear in Java. The Javanese chiyeyek used in a few gamelan are two cymbals, one of which is fixed on a wooden frame. The musician holds the other cymbal in his hand and hits it flat from above on the attached cymbal. More common are the Balinese cengceng , which consist of two hunched basins that are attached to a wooden base with the opening facing up. The player hits them with their counterparts, which he holds in his hands on wooden handles. The cengceng are used in the popular gamelan beleganjur , among other things . Smaller variants are called rincik.

Individual bells ( genta , from Sanskrit ghanta ) are no longer used in the Javanese gamelan ; outside of the court ensembles, different sizes and shapes of bells under the Javanese name klintingan are widespread. The counterpart to the European bell tree is a wooden stand on which bells are hung on several floors. As gentorag , the bell tree belongs to the ancient three-tone gamelan kodok ngorek on Bali.

Style of play

According to Jaap Kunst (1973), the Javanese kemanak was already relatively rare in the first half of the 20th century. There were only a few copies left of another small idiophone made of bronze called cheluring ( celuring ). This consisted of a number of bronze cups nailed to a wooden board. A set with two and seven tuned cups is known from Yogyakarta . They were posted in the kraton in a gamelan with a metal stick. At the time of the Hindu empires on Java (until the beginning of the 15th century), the cups were not mounted on a wooden board, but were held in the hands of dancers and beaten in pairs. In this use, cheluring are often shown in dance scenes on reliefs at the Buddhist temple Borobudur (8th / 9th century) and at the Hindu temple complex Prambanan (9th century). Contemporary names were probably tuwung and churing. As with cheluring , the way the kemanak is played has changed over the centuries : originally hit against each other, the sound bodies were later struck individually with a mallet.

In central Java and the Sunda region (western Java), kemanak are played in pairs by two musicians. Each musician holds a kemanak in his left hand and strikes it with a wooden stick ( tabuh ) that is thickly wrapped in fabric at the top , as is also used to play the bonang . Immediately after the hit, he quickly moves the hand with the kemanak upwards and covers the slot with his thumb, the pitch rising. Both kemanak are usually beaten alternately. The pitches vary greatly, as does the interval between instruments, which ranges from a diminished second to a fourth . In Bali, the smaller gumanak are beaten with metal sticks.

Bedhaya and Serimpi

Bedhaya dancers in the Sultan's craton of Yogyakarta , around 1884.

Kemanak are not used to form melodies. In the orchestra kemanak are colotomic (punctuating) rhythm instruments and give the accented beats in regular alternation throughout the piece of music. In the traditional, central Javanese rulers of Yogyakarta and Surakarta , kemanak belong to the old ensemble accompanying the ritual court dances bedhaya (also bedaya, bedaja ) and serimpi ( srimpi ). The gamelan for both dance styles has a limited selection of the usual instruments and consists only of the large, double-headed barrel drum kendang gending , the smaller barrel drum ketipung and, as colotomic instruments, a hanging large gong ageng , a lying kettle gong kenong , a lying humpback gong ketuk and a Set kemanak. A melody instrument ( rebab or suling ) is missing. The melody is provided exclusively by a choir that used to consist of about six women and is now also made up of men. The two kemanak only have the function of dividing the time units, their pitches are not aligned with the tuning of the other instruments.

Bedhaya is one of the oldest Javanese dance styles, about which, however, usable sources only exist since the 16th century; it is performed in the Princely Court of Yogyakarta and, since its permission in 1918, also outside the city. In contrast, the Kraton of Surakarta insists on the sole right to perform, which is why many of the dance styles there have been threatened with extinction since the second half of the 20th century and are hardly ever performed. There are different songs for the bedhaya style. The most sacred dance melody is the Bedhaya Ketawang . According to legend, Kanjeng Ratu Kidul, known as Ratu Laut Selatan ("Queen of the South Seas"), revealed her feelings and affection for Sultan Agung ("Great Sultan"), who ruled from 1613 to 1645, with this song and dance Ruler of the Islamic Sultanate of Mataram, in whose time the dance originated. The founder of the Sultanate of Mataram, Sutawijaya (also Panembahan Senopati, ruled 1587–1601) is said to have often gone to meditate on the seashore of the Seganten Kidul (Javanese "Southern Ocean") to receive inspiration from the sea goddess. One day he visited her in her palace at the bottom of the sea and she fell in love with him and danced in front of him. From this story Sultan Agung, a descendant of Sutawijaya, invented the Bedhaya Ketawang . Because of the connection with the dreaded South Sea goddess, the dance outside the palace was rarely discussed in the past, it was only allowed to be performed on special anniversaries and the dancers - in the most sacred performance it had to be exactly nine - either belonged to the royal family or were otherwise carefully selected. Bedhaya dances were considered sacred and at the same time a sign of ruling power. If ritual commandments were violated in connection with the performance, severe punishment was feared.

A bedhaya performance gets its charm from the harmonious relationship between the calm, elegant dance movements that tell no story, the long, free rhythmic melodies of the choir and the puncturing percussion instruments. The characteristic, bell-like sound of the kemanak marks the old age of the style. Since, in contrast to the modern versions of bedhaya and serimpi (as well as wayang performances), the Bedhaya Ketawang does not have a clock keprak (wooden box slotted drum corresponding to the pair of cymbals on a wooden box kecrek ), the dancers orientate themselves on gong agung, kemanak and kendang .

The serimpi dance style (also srimpi ), like the bedhaya, belongs to a cultivated ( alus ) courtly tradition that is considered a cultural ideal. It used to be the sole property of the royal houses and has a corresponding ritual significance. There are many pieces for both styles and new melodies can be composed and dances choreographed at any time. Well-known serimpi dances are Serimpi Pandelori and Serimpi Hadiwulangu . Dance movements, instrumental accompaniment and choir are stylistically similar in bedhaya and serimpi . Instead of nine, there are usually only four dancers at serimpi . These act more expressively than in bedhaya and represent an act of play in which two dancers embody a figure in parallel movements. The body movements are stylized, even fight scenes must be presented with controlled, slow movements and a "noble", rigid facial expression.

When Serimpi Anglir Mendung the two are kemanak beaten (1967) during the entire piece with a constant tempo alternately according to the pattern according to Ernst Heins: [1] 2 1 2 - [1] 2 1 2 - [1] 2 1 2 - [1 ] 2 1 2 - [1] 2 1 2…. The strikes [1] are performed in silence or remain inaudible, because they coincide with the strikes of the other colotomic instruments, one after the other: gong ageng and kenong - ketuk - wela - ketuk - kenong . Here wela is the name of the beat at which a kemanak can also be heard on [1].

Gambuh

Gamelan gambuh in Budakeling Village, Karangasem Governorate, East Bali. Two of the extremely long flutes suling in a strenuous playing posture, in between a spiked rebab , on the left a kempur gong , in the middle of the back row a bell tree gentorag .

The gambuh is considered to be the oldest form of the Balinese dance drama, in which pre-Islamic forms are preserved, which came to Bali in the 15th and 16th centuries with the cultural influences of the East Javanese empire Majapahit. With the gambuh , narrative acts (especially the legend of the Javanese prince Panji) and the close interaction between dance movements and music became part of the Balinese dance styles. The accompanying gamelan gambuh (or pagambuhan ) goes back directly to the oldest courtly music styles in Java, as evidenced in the ancient Javanese literature (9th to 13th centuries). The ensemble was named after the long, deep-sounding longitudinal flute suling gambuh . Two to four of these flutes are played in unison as melody instruments with circular breathing. A prickly rebab violin also plays in unison with the flutes . The male choir that used to be common in gamelan gambuh is now dispensed with. The leading rhythm instrument is the kendang lanang barrel drum , the player of which acts as a conductor for musicians and dancers. The kendang lanang sets the tempo and the change in dynamics and plays an interlocking rhythmic pattern with the second drum, the kendang wadon . The other instruments are kolotomischen two rincik ( ricik even ceng-ceng , Handzimbeln) Kajar (lying Gong), gentorag (Schell tree), two kangsi ( Fork Basin ) and two gumanak. The end of a musical phrase is marked by the hanging gong kempur . The gamelan gambuh accompanies the same narratives when they are performed as a shadow play ( wayang gambuh ), which is currently no longer the case .

The rhythm instruments of the gamelan gambuh are overall smaller and less numerous than in the large gamelan gong kebyar, which consists of around 40 percussion instruments . The seven-tone gamelan ( pelog ) gamelan gambuh produces the most complex musical form of any Balinese ensemble. It is difficult to learn and is rarely performed, although it is the starting point for most Balinese musical styles.

Dissemination theories

The kemanak played a role among representatives of diffusionism , a theory that was discussed up until the middle of the 20th century, according to which ancient migration movements of peoples are responsible for the similarity of cultural phenomena in different regions worldwide. In relation to Southeast Asia, the theories of Robert Heine-Geldern , which are now essentially obsolete, provided a basis within cultural theory for considerations on the distribution of musical instruments and tone scales, which Jaap Kunst also referred to among others . Heine-Geldern (1951) postulated a " Pontic migration" at the latest in the 9th century BC. From peoples from the Balkans and the Black Sea region of Asia Minor to Southeast Asia. According to Jaap Kunst, this theory should also explain why idiochorde tubular zithers made from grain stalks are used as children's toys in the Balkans, which correspond to Southeast Asian bamboo tubular zithers such as the guntang in Bali and the kolitong in the north of the Philippines. Jaap Kunst also wanted the two-part singing in the east of the island of Flores to be linked to the iso-polyphony in the Balkans.

Against this background, Jaap pla Post The Origin of the Kemanak to see (1960), in which he, the banana-shaped Idiophone whose specific form is certainly not committed to any acoustic need with a similar bent, also in pairs played instrument of Central African Fang presented in relationship . The comparison with the same playing style of two copies of a banana-shaped, wooden slit drum ( kende ) of the West African Kissi is based on a description by André Schaeffner (1951). Schaeffner found a variant of this bamboo instrument played by children, which could be a simpler forerunner of the wooden idiophone and whose material enabled a further reference to the numerous Southeast Asian percussion instruments made of bamboo.

In addition to Jaap Kunst, Hugh Tracey (1903–1977), Heinrich Husmann (1908–1983) and others noted numerous parallels between Indonesian and African musical instruments. The ideological basis for the assumption of a comprehensive transfer of culture from outside the continent to Africa (and to justify European colonialism) was essentially created by Harry Hamilton Johnston (1899), who explained that, besides domestic animals, there are drums and everything else on a higher level than the musical bow standing musical instruments came to Africa from Egypt. Ethnic musicologists focused on the import of culture from Indonesia, which reached Africa by sea. Erich Moritz von Hornbostel (1911) was the first to take special care of the musical part of the Indonesian cultural influence on Africa. Such an influence is only assumed to be certain today for Madagascar , where the bamboo zither valiha occurs as a well-known example of cultural transfer .

While the early research lacked detailed knowledge of African musical instruments, Arthur Morris Jones (1964) was able to make corresponding comparisons of instruments and sound systems on a broader material basis. The Javanese scales pelog and slendro are said to have been brought to Africa, a theory for which Fritz Bose shows understanding after considering certain deviations in the pitches. Hornbostel postulated an Indonesian origin of the African clapperless bells as part of his culture theory. Jones now repeats the comparisons of West African and Southeast Asian bamboo percussion instruments and describes the clapperless double hand bell of the gankogui type , which he relates to the kemanak , which is widespread in West Africa . However, both have little in common in their form, as Roger Blench (1982) notes.

Rock painting in the Brandberg massif , Namibia. " White lady " surrounded by "young men", one of whom (not shown) holds "kemanak" in his hand.

In fact, more similar to the kemanak is the forged iron percussion instrument mentioned by Jones atoke (also toke ) in Ghana , which consists of a curved segment of a circle that looks like a blossoming flower and is held in the palm of the hand. The atoke brings with an iron bar struck as the gankogui a certain pitch forward and is played in pairs. Jones adopts Jaap Kunst's description of atoke - kemanak for the equation . What Jones regards as a “very specialized form of a metal bell of the same shape” as the kemanak , which is common in several regions of Africa , is for Roger Blench limited to a small area in Africa and is very similar in general. The linguistic derivation of the Kissi-Schlitztrommel kende from Javanese genta ("bell") also appears to have made an effort.

In his search for the origin of the kemanak, Jaap Kunst relied on the publications of the French prehistorian and priest Henri Breuil (1877–1961), who examined prehistoric rock paintings in the Brandberg massif in Namibia and called a drawing called the " White Lady " - wrongly according to current knowledge - interpreted as a goddess or priestess. Based on the clothes and posture of the figure, Breuil believed a connection with ancient Mediterranean representations in the palace of Knossos on Crete from the 3rd / 2nd centuries. Millennium BC To recognize. According to Breuil, representatives of this early Mediterranean culture are said to have penetrated via East Africa to Namibia. In the vicinity of the Breuil between 1600 and 1200 BC The "White Lady" dated to the 4th century BC depicts other figures which, according to today's interpretation, belong to a hunting scene. Jaap Kunst thought that in the hand of one of these “young people” gathered around the “White Lady” he could clearly recognize two kemanak . This made it clear to him the origin and distribution of the kemanak : from the prehistoric Mediterranean to West Africa, to South Africa and to Southeast Asia.

literature

  • Andrew C. McGraw: Kemanak. In: Laurence Libin (Ed.): The Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Volume 3, Oxford University Press, Oxford / New York 2014, p. 129
  • Jaap Kunst : The Origin of the Kemanak . (PDF) In: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde , 116, No. 2, Leiden 1960, pp. 263–269
  • Jaap Art: Music in Java. Its History, its Theory and its Technique. 3rd edition edited by Ernst L. Heins. 2 volumes. Martinus Nijhoff, Den Haag 1973 (several corrections, additions in brackets and in the appendix, otherwise text of the second edition from 1949)

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Sibyl Marcuse : A Survey of Musical Instruments. Harper & Row, New York 1975, pp. 3f
  2. ^ Robert Heine-Geldern : The Early Metal Ages of Indonesia. In: American Anthropologist, New Series , Vol. 62, No. 2, April 1960, pp. 330-334, here p. 331
  3. ^ Mantle Hood: Ethnomusicology's Bronze Age in Y2K. In: Ethnomusicology , Volume 44, No. 3, Fall 2000, pp. 365-375, here p. 366
  4. ^ HR van Heekeren: The bronze-iron age of Indonesia. [PDF] (Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut vor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde) Martinus Nijhoff, S-Gravenhage 1965, p. 3
  5. ↑ HHE Loofs-Wissowa: The Development and Spread of Metallurgy in Southeast Asia: A Review of the Present Evidence. In: Journal of Southeast Asian Studies , Volume 14, No. 1, March 1983, pp. 1-11, here p. 2
  6. ^ HR van Heekeren, 1958, p. 5
  7. ↑ Mantle Hood: Bronze drum. 1st general. In: Stanley Sadie (Ed.): The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians . Volume 4. Macmillan Publishers, London 2001, p. 426
  8. ↑ R. Anderson Sutton, Endo Suanda, Sean Williams: Java. In: Terry E. Miller, Sean Williams (Eds.): The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Volume 4. Southeast Asia . Garland, New York / London 1998, p. 632
  9. ↑ Kakawin Wretasancaya , Old Javanese language in Kawi script on a palm leaf manuscript ; archive.org
  10. ↑ Jaap Kunst, Volume 1, 1973, pp. 110f
  11. ↑ Jaap Kunst, 1960, p. 268
  12. ^ Jaap Kunst, Volume 1, 1973, p. 180
  13. ↑ Jaap Kunst, Volume 1, 1973, pp. 183-185
  14. ↑ Figure 76 : cheluring . In: Jaap Art: Music in Java. Its History, its Theory and its Technique , Volume 2, p. 427
  15. ↑ Jaap Kunst, Volume 1, 1973, pp. 182f
  16. ↑ Hardja Susilo: The Javanese Court Dance. In: The World of Music , Volume 21, No. 1, 1979, pp. 90-102, here p. 90
  17. ↑ Nusjirwan Tirtaamidjaja: A Beḍaja Ketawang Dance Performance at the Court of Surakarta. In: Indonesia , No. 3, April 1967, pp. 30-61, here pp. 30, 33-35
  18. ↑ Miriam J. Morrison: The Bedaya-Serimpi Dances of Java . In: Dance Chronicle , Vol. 2, No. 3, 1978, pp. 188-212, here pp. 189, 206
  19. ↑ Miriam Morrison: The Expression of Emotion in Court Dances of Yogjakarta . In: Asian Music , Volume 7, No. 1 ( Southeast Asia Issue ) 1975, pp. 33-38, here p. 35
  20. ↑ Ernst L. Heins: The Music of the Serimpi “Anglir Menḍung”. In: Indonesia , No. 3, April 1967, pp. 135–151, here p. 138
  21. ↑ I. Made Bandem, Fredrik de Boer: Gambuh: A Classical Balinese dance drama. In: Asian Music , Vol. 10, No. 1, 1978, pp. 115-127
  22. ^ Edward Herbst: Voices in Bali: Energies and Perceptions in Vocal Music and Dance Theater. Wesleyan University Press, Middletown 1997, p. 62
  23. ↑ Marianne Ariyanto: Gambuh: The Source of Balinese dance. In: Asian Theater Journal , Volume 2, No. 2 ( Traditional Asian Play Issue: Part I ) Fall 1985, pp. 221-230, here pp. 222-224
  24. ↑ Robert Heine-Geldern: The Tocharer Problem and the Pontic Migration . In: Saeculum. Yearbook for Universal History , Volume 2. Karl Alber, Freiburg 1951
  25. ↑ Laurence Picken : Folk Musical Instruments of Turkey . Oxford University Press, London 1975, p. 177
  26. ^ Philip Yampolsky: Making the 'Music of Indonesia' Series: A Memoir. In: Timothy Rice (Ed.): Ethnomusicological Encounters with Music and Musicians. Essays in Honor of Robert Garfias . Ashgate, Farnham 2011, p. 167
  27. ^ André Schaeffner : Les Kissi. Une société noire et ses instruments de musique. Herman, Paris 1951
  28. ↑ Harry Hamilton Johnston: A History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races. University Press, Cambridge 1899 ( archive.org )
  29. ↑ Harry Hamilton Johnston: A History of the Colonization of Africa by Alien Races. Edition 1913, p. 20 Text archive - Internet Archive
  30. ↑ Erich Moritz von Hornbostel : About an acoustic criterion for cultural contexts. In: Zeitschrift für Ethnologie , 1911, pp. 601–615
  31. ^ Arthur Morris Jones : Africa and Indonesia: The Evidence of the Xylophone and Other Musical and Cultural Factors: With an Additional Chapter - More Evidence on Africa and Indonesia. (Asian Studies) EJ Brill, Leiden 1964
  32. ^ Fritz Bose : Review: Africa and Indonesia. The evidence of the xylophone and other musical and cultural factors by AM Jones. In: Die Musikforschung , Volume 20, Issue 2, April / June 1967, pp. 214–218, here p. 215
  33. ^ Roger Blench: Evidence for the Indonesian origins of certain elements of African culture: A review, with special reference to the arguments of AM Jones. In: African Music , Volume 6, No. 2, International Library of African Music, 1982, pp. 81–93, here p. 89
  34. ↑ Toke (aka Atoke) . ( Memento of May 12, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Motherland Music
  35. ^ "Exactly the same curious instrument [like atoke] is found in Java, where it is called the Kemanak." In: Arthur Morris Jones, 1964, p. 158
  36. ^ Roger Blench, 1982, p. 86
  37. ↑ Arthur Morris Jones (1964), p. 160
  38. ↑ Jaap Kunst, 1960, p. 269