Krambe
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Crambe ( Crambe hispanica subsp. Abyssinica ) |
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| Crambe hispanica subsp. abyssinica | ||||||||||||
| ( Hochst. Ex REFr. ) Prina |
The Krambe , Ölkrambe , Crambe or Abyssinian sea kale ( Crambe hispanica subsp. Abyssinica (Hochst. Ex REFr.) Prina , Syn .: Crambe abyssinica Hochst. Ex REFr. ) Is a subspecies of the Crambe hispanica L. plant species from the genus sea kale ( Crambe ) within the cruciferous family (Brassicaceae). It is an oil plant whose oil is used as a renewable raw material for the production of foam retardants, technical oils and waxes as well as in detergents . Compared to other oil crops such as rapeseed ( Brassica napus subsp. Oleifera ), they are only of minor importance as an economic plant .
description
Vegetative characteristics
The Krambe is an annual herbaceous plant . Their height of 60 to over 150 centimeters depends heavily on the site conditions. In particularly dry locations, the plant specimens only reach heights of 40 to 60 centimeters. The stem is densely covered with hairs 0.25 to 1.5 millimeters long in the lower area and becomes increasingly bald in the upper area. The plant branches out from the ground, whereby the degree of branching can be more or less strong. As the seeds ripen, the plant turns light brown and then dies.
The deep extending into the ground taproot represents an adjustment to its original, dry habitat. It is highly branched and penetrates into deep soil layers, from which they can absorb water and nutrients. Soil compaction and stones are grown around through curvatures and branches.
The foliage leaves close to the ground are round-oval to heart-shaped with a length of 2 to 5.5 centimeters with an irregular edge and long stem, the terminal lobes are ovate and blunt. Leaves higher up, on the other hand, are small and lanceolate.
Inflorescence and flower
The flowers stand together in loose, racemose inflorescences .
The hermaphroditic, relatively small flowers are fourfold. The four sepals are about 2 millimeters long. The four white petals are 2.5 to 3.5 millimeters long and have the cross-shaped position typical of cruciferous vegetables. The four large and two small stamens are 2 to 3.5 millimeters long with about 0.75 millimeters long anthers.
Fruit and seeds
The two-part and very short, oval to spherical pods usually contain only one seed that is gray-green to yellowish-brown in color. The pods have a diameter of 2 to 5 millimeters, they have a thousandfruit mass of 7 to 14 grams. The spherical seed has a diameter of 1.5 to 3 millimeters and reaches a thousand-grain mass of 4 to 12 grams.
ingredients
The seeds, both wild and cultivated, have an average oil content of around 40 to 50 percent of dry weight, the fruit only 30 to 40 percent. This is primarily erucic acid , which makes up 55 to 62 percent of the oil in the plant - this is the highest erucic acid content of all known vegetable oils. Other components are oleic acid with 15 to 18 percent , linoleic acid with 8 to 10 percent and linolenic acid with 6 to 7 percent.
As with other cruciferous vegetables, the protein content of junk seeds is around 20 to 25 percent of the dry weight. Other ingredients include mustard oil glycosides with about 60 to 90 μmol / g, with about 95 percent being made up of the Epi-Progoitrin . Also sinapine , tannins and inositol phosphates are detected.
genetics
The Krambe has a very large set of chromosomes of 2n = 90 chromosomes and is clearly different from other species of the genus. In comparison, the subspecies Spanish sea kale ( Crambe hispanica L. subsp. Hispanica ) has a chromosome set of only 2n = 60 chromosomes. Both species can be crossed with each other and have been hybridized to breed several varieties .
ecology
The nectaries are filled with honey, making them attractive to bees and bumblebees, which are the majority of the pollinators . In addition to this insect pollination , the flowers can also self-pollinate (autogamy).
development
The Krambe is an annual plant that has a vegetation period of 90 to 110 days under Central European climatic conditions. This begins with a rising phase, which, depending on the temperature, can last between less than 10 days at temperatures above 11 ° C and around 15 days at temperatures below 8 ° C. It takes 50 to 60 days before flowering begins, during which the vegetative parts of the plant, such as the stem and leaves, grow. This is followed by a flowering phase of 25 to 30 days and seed maturity with 15 to 30 days.
The rise losses can be between 50 percent at daytime temperatures of around 8 ° C during the rise phase and 10 percent at higher temperatures around 15 ° C. After the rise, the loss range is between 14 and 33 percent. The development also depends on the water supply, whereby the demand is very high, especially in the early generative development phase and later again during seed maturation.
Original occurrences
Information about the original distribution area of the Krambe is contradictory, mainly due to the taxonomic situation that has not yet been fully clarified. The information ranges from the representation as an endemic plant in Ethiopia to the widespread view that the original distribution area is in the steppe areas in the highlands of Abyssinia in Ethiopia as well as in Rwanda and that the plant spreads from there via East Africa to Africa and Asia Minor Mediterranean coast has spread to Turkey .
Systematics
The first description was under the name (Basionym) Crambe abyssinica by Robert Elias Fries during the botanical evaluation of the results of the Swedish Rhodesia-Congo Expedition , which took place from 1911 to 1912 under the direction of Eric Graf von Rosen . It was published in Stockholm in 1916 as the first volume of the scientific results of the Swedish Rhodesia-Congo Expedition 1911-1912, in which Fries first described a number of other new species under the subtitle Botanical Investigations in addition to Crambe abyssinica .
Crambe hispanica subsp. abyssinica (Hochst. ex REFr.) Prina is a subspecies of the plant species Crambe hispanica L. from the section Leptocrambe in the genus Sea cabbage ( Crambe ) within the cruciferous family (Brassicaceae). Within the genus Crambe it is required to be classified as a subspecies in the species Crambe hispanica on the basis of molecular genetic characteristics . Other species in this section are Crambe filiformis , Crambe glabrata and Crambe kralikii , the entire section is contrasted with the section Dendrocrambe with three species as a sister group.
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In 2000 the new system of the Leptocrambe section was presented. The Krambe was identified as a subspecies Crambe hispanica subsp. abyssinica of Crambe hispanica with the two varieties var. abyssinica and var. meyeri . The revision in various pile representations and databases is accepted as valid. The previously established name is mainly used in writings about the use and application of the Krambe. The presentation was confirmed by a study from 2003 based on a broad data set of morphological and genetic data, in which the species complex of Crambe abyssinica , Crambe hispanica and Crambe glabrata was examined. In 2003, Crambe glabrata was clearly distinguished from the other two species, while the Krambe lies within the variability of characteristics of the Crambe hispanica .
use
Cultivation and breeding history
The Krambe is very young as a useful plant and was first cultivated in the Soviet Union in 1932 . As a result, the cultivation area increased, especially in Eastern Europe, although it never had any significant share of the arable land. Only from the 1950s and 1960s are areas of 30,000 ha in the Soviet Union and in Poland named, and in the German Democratic Republic the Krambe was grown as an oil plant on around 4,200 ha. It was also grown and bred in North America, Canada and the USA, as well as Venezuela at this time. Documented cultivation began in the USA in 1958.
The crops were selected mainly from the African wild stocks and bred to improve grain yields and to adapt to the Eurasian climatic conditions. The Polish Borowski was approved as the first cultivar in 1960 , followed by the American Prophet in 1968 . Further breeding came about through the crossbreeding of the Spanish sea kale ( C. hispanica ), through which the vegetation period was shortened and the resistance to drought and frost increased. They led to the Meyer variety, approved in 1973 . In 1986 the two varieties BelAnn and BelEnzian were added from North America .
The increasingly more favorable properties of the new varieties led to renewed interest in cultivation as a renewable raw material for the chemical industry in the 1980s and 1990s. The plant was grown on a trial basis and on relatively small acreages in several European countries, including Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, France, Sweden and Poland. In Italy, further breeding resulted in the variety Mario , which was approved in 1996. Other new breeds such as Nebula , Galactica , Charlotte and Carmen came from the Netherlands. Carmen and Mario in particular are still regarded as the ideal varieties for the Central European climate and are recommended for cultivation in Germany.
In Germany, around 100 to 500 hectares were used for Krambe in the mid-1990s. In other European countries the share of the total usable area was also low. In the United Kingdom, the total area in 2003 was over 3,500 hectares (2002 and 2004: a good 1,000 hectares each), and contract cultivation for a private company still plays the main role there today. Publicly funded projects in Germany and at the level of the European Union supported the establishment as an agricultural culture and its industrial use from the mid-1990s to around 2005. In the USA, a significant area of over 20,000 hectares has been reached due to private and government initiatives to increase use.
Cultivation
As a drought-resistant plant, the Krambe can mainly be grown in locations that are not or only poorly suitable for plants with comparable uses, especially rapeseed . Cultivation on loamy-sandy soils with low sorption capacity is possible. It places somewhat higher conditions on the air temperature than rapeseed or camelina . The minimum germination temperature is 8 to 10 ° C and the optimum is 15 to 25 ° C. The frost tolerance is low, the tolerance limit is −5 ° C.
A combination with potatoes or cereals is considered to be the optimal crop rotation , while a change with rapeseed or other cruciferous vegetables such as cabbage or beet is not recommended due to one-sided land use. The use of the area by Krambe within the crop rotation should be a maximum of 25 percent. A direct use of rubbish after a green fallow area has a negative effect on the yields of the rubbish, since in this case a high level of undesirable wild herbs can be expected. Due to its positive properties on soil fertility, the krambe itself is a good previous crop for subsequent cultivation with grain.
The harvest takes place when the plants are fully ripe and have taken on a light gray color. After ripening, the fruits can fall out, so a time window of around 14 days should be used for harvesting. Like rapeseed, the Krambe can also be harvested with combine harvesters. Information on the yield level varies greatly depending on the author and the growing region. For the USA, yields of 0.17 to 2.8 tons per hectare are given. Surveys from four German federal states show yields between 0.6 and 2.4 tons per hectare in large-scale cultivation for 1996–1999. The yields are significantly higher in plot tests carried out at the same time, in which up to 4 tons per hectare were achieved.
use
As an oil plant, the Krambe is used almost exclusively as a raw material for industry, since the ingredients are inedible to poisonous for humans and livestock. When harvesting, all the fruits are collected, with the peel portion accounting for around 20 to 40 percent.
The main component of the seeds, erucic acid, is slightly toxic and is mainly used in the production of foam inhibitors in detergents , ( emulsifiers ), technical oils and lubricants. Other areas of application are in the production of synthetic fibers , alkyd resins and plasticizers as well as in the production of pharmaceutical products. As a heat-stable oil, Krambe oil is also used in steel processing.
As a by-product of the production of Krambe oil, depending on the processing method, Krambe press cake or Krambe extraction meal is produced. These can only be used to a very limited extent as animal feed, as the glucosinolates and other ingredients such as sinapine , tannins and inositol phosphates are toxic and thus counteract their use as food (anti-nutritional effect). The maximum values for the admixture of Krambenebenprodukte in concentrated feed amount to 15 percent, in pig diets 5 percent.
Green genetic engineering
The Krambe is being discussed as a potential producer of wax esters and is to be optimized for lubricants in the vehicle industry through genetic engineering. When choosing this plant, the ethical component is in the foreground: unlike most other oil plants, the Krambe is viewed as a pure raw material plant ( non-food crop ), as its oils cannot be used for the food industry.
Plant protection
In crop protection, direct damage to plants by various fungi or animal pests (insects, roundworms) and indirect damage from weeds play a central role. Due to its very rapid leaf development, the Krambe is considered to be competitive with other plants; A herbicide use is still considered necessary. In the USA and Eastern Europe, mainly trifluralin preparations are used as soil herbicides and butisan , lentagran and others as pesticides .
The main pathogens of the Krambe are fungi such as Alternaria black, which is caused by the species Alternaria brassicicola and Alternaria brassiceae , the white stalk , which is triggered by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum , and the gray mold caused by Botrytis cinerea . Other harmful fungi of lesser importance are Verticillium dahliae ( Verticillium wilt ), Plasmodiophora brassicae , Puccinia trabutii and Peronospora crambes . Various fungicides can reduce infestation by 20 to 30 percent.
Insects and other animal pests play a subordinate role, with weevils , cabbage pod mosquitoes and gloss beetles , which damage oilseed rape as a comparison species, are hardly detectable. In rare cases, an infestation with the small cabbage fly ( Delia radicum ) has been observed. The beet cyst ( Heterodera schachtii ) can settle in the roots .
Viruses are also of little importance in the plant protection of the Krambe. However, it can serve as a host plant for various viruses, including above all the Turnip yellow mosaic virus (TYMV) transmitted by the cabbage pod weevil ( Ceutorhynchus assimilis ), the bed mild yellowing virus (BMYV) and the bed western yellows virus (BWYV). The Krambe is also susceptible to the radish mosaic virus (RaMV, Radish mosaic virus), as has been demonstrated in experimental infection tests.
supporting documents
Individual evidence
Most of the information in this article has been taken from the sources given under literature; the following sources are also cited:
- ↑ a b c Anibal Prina: A taxonomic revision of Crambe, sect. Leptocrambe (Brassicaceae). In: Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , Volume 133, 2000, pp. 509-524.
- ↑ a b c d e information from Honermeier 2006
- ↑ a b Data from M. Klaus: Investigations into the cultivation of Krambe ( Crambe abyssinica Hochst. Ex RE Fries) on Pleistocene sites in northeast Germany. Dissertation at the University of Rostock, 1998; quoted from Honermeier 2006
- ^ According to A. Bramm: Investigations into the water and nitrogen requirements of Krambe (Crambe abyssinica). In: Communications from the Society for Crop Science. 9, 1996; quoted from Honermeier 2006
- ^ A b Suzanne I. Warwick, Richard K. Gugel: Genetic variation in the Crambe abyssinica - C. hispanica - C. glabrata complex. In: Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution. Volume 50, No. 3, 2003, pp. 291–305 ( abstract )
- ↑ Javier Francisco-Ortega, Javier Fuertes-Aguilar, César Gómez-Campo, Arnoldo Santos-Guerra, Robert K. Jansen: Internal Transcribed Spacer Sequence Phylogeny of Crambe L. (Brassicaceae): Molecular Data Reveal Two Old World Disjunctions. In: Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution , Volume 11, No. 3, 1999, pp. 361-380.
- ^ HM Burkill: The useful plants of west tropical Africa. Volume 1, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 1985.
- ↑ a b Keyword Crambe In: Hans Zoebelein (Ed.): Dictionary of Renewable Resources. 2nd edition, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim and New York 1996; Page 62. ISBN 3-527-30114-3 .
- ↑ Interactive European Network for Industrial Crops and their Applications: Report from the state of the United Kingdom. Update Report, July, 2004. ( Memento of the original from September 24, 2006 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 145 kB)
- ↑ IENICA
- ↑ Agency for Renewable Raw Materials (ed.): Krambe - an alternative summer oil fruit. Pp. 12-14.
- ↑ Green raw materials on the advance. In: research eu, magazine of the European Research Area (online)
- ↑ Anders S. Carlssen (Ed.): Production of Wax Esters in Crambe. In: Output from EPOBIO Project November 2006. CNAP University of York 2006; ISBN 978-1-872691-03-9 ( full text ; PDF; 504 kB)
- ↑ Plant Viruses Online: Turnip yellow mosaic tymovirus ( Memento of the original from July 1, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Plant Viruses Online: Beet mild yellowing virus ( Memento of the original from March 20, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Plant Viruses Online: Beet western yellows luteovirus ( Memento of the original from February 27, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ J. Horvath, N. Juretic, D. Milicic: Crambe abyssinica Hochst. ex RE Frees as a new host plant for turnip yellow mosaic virus and radish mosaic virus. Phytopathologische Zeitschrift 78 (1973); Pages 69-74
literature
- B. Honermeier: Crambe. In: Klaus-Ulrich Heyland, Herbert Hanus, Ernst Robert Keller: Oil fruits, fiber plants, medicinal plants and special crops. Handbook of Plant Cultivation Volume 4, Eugen Ulmer KG, Stuttgart 2006, ISBN 978-3-8001-3203-4 ; Pages 179-184.
- Agency for Renewable Raw Materials (Ed.): Krambe - an alternative summer oil fruit. Landwirtschaftsverlag, Münster 2001, ISBN 3-7843-3130-0 .
- Otto Eugen Schulz: Cruciferae-Brassiceae. Pars great. Subtribe I. Brassicinae et II. Raphaninae. In: A. Engler (Ed.): Das Pflanzenreich , Heft 70, IV., 105, 1919; P. 243.
Web links
- Dataset from Mansfeld's World Database of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops .
- Bio esters and wax esters from Krambe and camelina oil through esterification and transesterification reactions for use in the lubricant and cosmetics sector, State Research Center for Agriculture and Fisheries, Gülzow.
- University of Wisconsin Alternative Field Crops Manual .
- Portrait of Springdale Crop Synergies Ltd. (PDF; 167 kB)
