Buying behavior

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Under the purchasing behavior (including consumer behavior, consumer behavior or customer behavior) refers to the behavior of the buyer with respect to the purchase of goods .

General

The behavior when buying goods, from the purchase planning to the purchase negotiation (s), the conclusion of the purchase, which always has the character of a contract, to the post- purchase behavior is very different. Purchasing behavior among traders who may with the solicitation of offers and / or lengthy negotiations , if necessary, is also in shopping bodies connected, sometimes differs significantly from the purchasing behavior of non-traders, whether they are government agencies , often on the basis of tenders decide, or be it consumers with very different behavioral patterns. More generally, however, the term consumer behavior can be characterized in such a way that it encompasses all individual actions that can be observed in connection with the purchase or consumption of economic goods.

overview

First of all, three players in the market can be identified. Consumers in the sense of end users, companies in terms of producers and larger public organizations. Each of these actors can now slip into the roles of buyer or seller , so that there can be 9 different constellations between the participants. The table abstracts these relationships:

Supplier and customer relationships
Enquirer
Consumer
(Consumer)		 Company
(business)		 public organization
(administration)
providers
consumer
C2C C2B C2A
Companies
B2C B2B B2A
public
organization
 A2C A2B A2A

In general, marketing research focuses on the two constellations business-to-consumer (B2C) and business-to-business (B2B), i.e. the consumer behavior of individuals or smaller groups and the transactions between companies, in the sense of buyers and suppliers.

The buying behavior of organizations is examined under the concept of Organizational Buying Behavior . It is typical of the purchasing behavior of organizations that several people are often involved in the decision-making process.

Scientific influences

Analyzing, explaining and forecasting or influencing the behavior of market participants is a central task of marketing in general.

Many sciences and types of science intertwine on this topic. There are separate research areas that are responsible for empirical recording and modeling and others that then apply them. In addition to general market research , the areas of psychology , sociology and anthropology play a key role. Market psychology is somewhat more specialized ; According to Salcher (1995), it is applied science »the analysis that goes beyond the mere description of behavior and leads to the explanation of causes and the disclosure of only partially conscious wishes, ideas and needs.«

From a psychological point of view, the focus is on consumer or purchase decisions , which span the arc to decision theory . Through this one tries to clarify the questions of where, when, how and why of the purchase decisions.

The buying behavior of wholesale and retail customers is specifically analyzed in commercial management , namely in its newer branch of retail psychology .

The results can also be used in consumer goods marketing and retail marketing .

Types of buying behavior

There are classically four types of buying behavior:

  • extensive buying behavior: real buying decisions; cognitive participation and the need for information are great, and decision-making takes a relatively long time; it is mostly high-quality, durable consumer goods
  • habitual buying behavior: habitual behavior; there is no search for alternatives, there is practically no reaction to stimuli; it is mainly about everyday goods
  • limited buying behavior: a manageable selection of products, without a favoritism ( evoked set ); however, these alternatives are consciously compared. Shortened decision-making process: as soon as a suitable product has been found, the decision-making process is ended; Possible reasons: time limits, convenience (e.g. clothing), reliance on well-known brands.
  • impulsive buying behavior: spontaneous, affective reactions at the point of sale

In addition, a fifth special form of buying behavior is known:

  • Buying behavior seeking variety : is seldom considered because there are unclear transitions, because the desire for variety is often "impulsive", so it is sometimes not "real"

However, this classification of purchasing behavior cannot be applied analogously to the consumer as a whole. A decision maker can be forced by external circumstances to make a choice in a very short time; then there is no time for extensive planning and comparison. It is also likely that a consumer who behaves habitually at the bakery (e.g. always buying the same type of bread roll) will nevertheless deal extensively with the purchase of a new car.

Models of buying behavior

Heribert Meffert categorizes two types of models that have become established in the literature:

  • Total models (try to integrate all essential determinants of buying behavior)
    • Structural models (explain relationships between the constructs of buying behavior)
    • Process models (consider different phases of the purchase decision)
  • Partial models (consider certain determinants of purchasing behavior in isolation)

Regardless of the type of model in which the collected information is processed, one can say relatively precisely which factors need to be examined. In terms of the SOR paradigm , a distinction is made between:

  • intrapersonal or psychological influencing factors and
  • interpersonal or social influencing factors

The individual is shaped by society, values ​​and norms, families and culture. It is not the job of marketing to influence these factors.

Total models

Partial models

  • Psychological approaches (emotion theory, motive theory, attitude theory, risk theory)
  • Sociological approaches (diffusion theory, model group theory, peer groups)
  • Microeconomic approach (Homo oeconomicus)

Central constructs to explain consumer behavior

Lambda hypothesis: relationship between activation and performance

Christian Homburg and Harley Krohmer, on the other hand, name eight central constructs that can largely be used to explain consumer behavior:

activation

Activation refers to the arousal ("psychological activity") of consumers, which stimulates them to act, as well as the supply of energy to the consumer in order to put him in a state of efficiency. The alertness in turn is the foundation of all other factors. It describes the inner state of excitement in humans, especially the excitation of the central nervous system. This characterizes the willingness to absorb and process information.

A general distinction is made between two types of activation:

  • tonic activation : general, slowly changing performance of individuals.
  • phasic activation : short-term activation that is triggered by certain stimuli; Because it leads to attention, which in turn plays an important role in the context of information absorption, it is highly relevant for marketing and therefore also for consumer behavior.

A model for showing the relationship between the degree of activation and performance is the so-called lambda hypothesis , which states that with increasing activation, the performance of an individual increases to a maximum (stage of "waking attention"); the area between inactivation (sleep) and being alert is called normal activation. After this area there is an over-activation of the individual up to panic, in which the performance, and thus also the ability to absorb and process information (about products), decreases.

The task of marketing is to know the degree of activation of the consumers and to influence it profitably, i. H. Too weak or strong activation by stimuli (emotional, cognitive, physical) increase or decrease in order to avoid both inattention and the boomerang effect of overactivation. Nowadays one is more likely to be confronted with stimulus or information overload (on the Internet especially the lost in hyperspace phenomenon or banner blindness ). Human behavior is relatively well researched in this regard, so that the use of colors, music ( muzak ) or smells ( scent marketing ) is widespread. Another example of the relevance of activation can be seen in the so-called auction fever, in which the excitement of the other bidders (activation) can lead to impulsive purchase decisions.

motivation

Motivation describes the activating orientation of a person towards a target state that is assessed as positive (or negative) and is oriented towards the satisfaction of needs. Marketing has a large number of motivational models available that can be used to find out what the motivation for a consumer is and how this can be addressed by marketing. The motivation theory of Maslow (1970, 1975) is the most widespread model in consumer behavior research.

The individual has certain needs that have to be recognized in order to be able to deal with them later as a concrete need. However, individuals cannot generate needs. As mentioned, there are pre-imprints from the environment that lead to us having certain preferences . In relation to products and services, these can be specific associations. Image is an important concept .

With regard to the question of the origin of motivation, the motivational psychological expectation-for-value model and the VIE theory of Vroom (1964) are mostly used.

When it comes to the question of how behavioral motivation can be analyzed and addressed through marketing, reference can be made to Maslow's hierarchy of needs , means-end analysis and the laddering process mentioned above .

emotion

An emotion describes a spontaneous or long-lasting state of feeling in an individual, which is usually associated with physical excitement . Emotions have a significant impact on purchasing and consumer behavior by influencing the assessment and retrieval of information (regarding products) and the resulting judgments.

There are many different types of emotions and just as many categories of emotions; Examples include affect , sensation , passion , mood , basic mood and attitude towards life, which were categorized in descending order according to the criterion of situation dependence. With regard to the development of emotions, emotion research provides two central approaches, the first seeing emotions as the results of the interpretation of subjective events and the second assuming that the emotions are based on key biological stimuli that are anchored in the genome, for example a joyful response to perception pleasant stimuli (e.g. fragrances).

Marketing, in turn, uses this knowledge to differentiate products through emotional experiences; one speaks of emotional conditioning . The attempt to achieve such conditioning is usually done through communication policy and aims to address those emotions that the consumer would most likely associate with the relevant product.

Involvement

Involvement refers to a targeted form of activating the consumer to search for information, absorb information, process information and store information, which influences consumer behavior. The involvement of an individual can be classically differentiated according to three criteria, namely temporal continuity, the consumer's recourse to either cognitions or emotions when making a purchase decision, and finally the degree of involvement:

  • Time continuity criterion:
    • Long-term involvement : the consumer has an interest in a reference object (or product) over a long period of time.
    • Situational involvement : the consumer has a temporary interest in a reference object; this form of involvement occurs much more frequently than long-term involvement.
  • Criterion for the consumer's recourse to cognitions or emotions:
    • Cognitive involvement : the consumer is willing to learn, reflect and process information relevant to the product in question.
    • Emotional involvement : the consumer has special feelings about a specific product (e.g. a fan of Tokio Hotel who would be interested in buying a CD from this music group).
  • Criterion of the degree of involvement:
    • Low involvement : a low involvement level is usually characterized by the fact that the product under consideration is relatively unimportant for the consumer and only associated with a low risk. This leads to a passive / recurring decision behavior (decision routine). Furthermore, low involvement purchases are characterized by the fact that they are based on a few, simple criteria. Since the consumer is only looking for an acceptable level of satisfaction with such low-involvement purchases, he usually buys the brand that he thinks would cause the least problems.
    • High involvement : In turn, a high level of involvement is given when the consumer considers the product in question to be important, whereby the product purchase is often linked to a high risk. This results in an active / complex purchase decision process, according to which the purchase is based on a detailed comparison of different brands with many complex criteria. Ultimately, the brand is bought which the consumer believes would bring the greatest benefit, with which he tries to maximize his satisfaction by making an optimal decision .

The degree of involvement and the recourse to cognitions or emotions are the two characteristics on the basis of which purchasing behavior can typically be divided into impulsive, habitualized, extensive and primarily rational purchasing behavior (Homburg / Krohmer) (see types of purchasing behavior ).

For marketing , this in turn basically means three aspects that must be taken into account:

  • Consideration of the average customer involvement associated with the relevant product; possible differentiation of distribution channels for company products with different levels of involvement.
  • Use of high situational involvement to address customers.
  • Possibility of marginally influencing the involvement of consumers by making customers aware of the relevant products.

attitude

An attitude is a relatively time-stable inner attitude of the consumer towards a reference object (e.g. a person, idea or thing), in connection with an evaluation or an expectation. An attitude directly influences a consumer's behavioral intention - and thus also his purchasing behavior. It is important to note that although the attitude has a very strong influence on the behavioral intention and this in turn plays an important role in the buying behavior, the attitude itself has only a small direct influence on the actual behavior, which is largely due to other factors , for example the available budget, is influenced and sometimes also limited.

In general, settings can be typologized in different setting types with regard to five different criteria:

  • Component:
    • Cognitively shaped attitude : the attitude towards the reference object is based on mentally assessed information about the object.
    • Emotional attitude : the attitude towards the reference object results from feelings towards the object.
  • Reference object:
    • specific attitude : refers to concrete objects (e.g. towards the wine of a winery).
    • categorical setting : relates to object categories (e.g. product categories), but not to individual objects.
  • Origin:
    • Adopted setting : based on external information.
    • experience-based attitude : results from the consumer's personal experience with the reference object.
  • Temporal stability:
    • stable attitude : the attitude is firmly anchored in the consumer's long-term memory, can only be changed little through marketing.
    • unstable attitude : the attitude is not firmly anchored in the consumer's long-term memory, can be changed significantly through marketing.

In order to answer the question of how attitudes arise, Fishbein's model can be used, which explains the emergence of attitudes from the fact that the consumer perceives and evaluates various product or object properties.

For marketing, on the other hand, attitudes primarily mean three things: on the one hand, influencing attitudes through the use of suitable communication instruments and the appropriate design of the communication presence, and on the other hand, influencing attitudes within the framework of product policy, in which the design of existing and new products as well brand management can make a significant contribution. Finally, settings for marketing are relevant in relation to sales policy, especially when designing sales activities.

Customer satisfaction

Customer satisfaction is a special form of the customer's attitude in relation to the satisfaction with the transaction or the relationship with the provider. Customer satisfaction is relevant for consumer behavior insofar as customer satisfaction has an effect on customer loyalty and on the price-related behavior of customers.

With regard to customer loyalty, it should be noted that satisfied customers buy the same product more often, are ready to make additional purchases and are ready to recommend the company and its products to their environment - and thus to other (potential) customers.

The relationship to price-related customer behavior, in turn, consists in the fact that the customer's willingness to pay and their satisfaction with products previously purchased from the same company are strongly positively correlated. This graphically amounts to a function in which, in the first section, the willingness to pay increases sharply with customer satisfaction, followed by an indifference area with constant willingness to pay, after which the willingness to pay increases again with customer satisfaction.

To explain the development of customer satisfaction, the C / D paradigm (confirmation / disconfirmation paradigm) can be used, which is based on the process of comparing an expected target performance, the comparison standard, and an actual actual performance, the perceived performance. Three scenarios then result from this comparison process:

  • Negative disconfirmation (actual <target): results in customer satisfaction below the confirmation level ( i.e. dissatisfaction)
  • Confirmation (actual = target): results in satisfaction at the confirmation level
  • Positive disconfirmation (actual> target): results in customer satisfaction above the confirmation level (high satisfaction)

Depending on how the confirmation or disconfirmation turns out, a corresponding customer behavior develops on the basis of the influences of customer satisfaction on purchasing and consumer behavior described above.

Marketing, in turn, can use this knowledge to increase customer satisfaction as much as it is in the company's interest (customer satisfaction should not necessarily be maximized, as otherwise very high comparative standards will develop that the company can no longer meet). This leads to the fact that marketing should endeavor to increase the quality of the service or the products sold, to positively influence the quality perception of the customers by means of communication policy and finally to influence the expectations of the customers in such a way that they remain realistic.

Values ​​and lifestyle

values

Values are persistent beliefs that certain behavior is positive; the totality of all values ​​of a consumer then forms his value system . The relevance of values ​​arises from the fact that values ​​are assessment criteria and thus have a direct or indirect effect on purchasing behavior.

In general, a distinction is made between social and personal values:

  • social values : values ​​that are shared and accepted by most members of a society and are based on a cultural framework.
  • personal values : unconscious or conscious standards of judgment for yourself.

Buying behavior is usually very strongly influenced by social values, as these have a decisive influence on personal values.

lifestyle

A lifestyle is an externally perceptible pattern of behavior that is shaped by personal and social values. In market research , consumers are grouped into customer segments based on their lifestyle; one speaks here of lifestyle typologies. Lifestyle typologies are in turn very useful for explaining or even estimating the consumer behavior of individuals, since the members of a lifestyle typology have similar purchasing behavior. The Sinus milieus are examples of lifestyle typologies .

Environmental factors

In general, a person's environment can be divided into three categories: physical environment, social environment and cultural environment.

  • physical environment : natural environment and man-made (artificial) environment
  • social environment : closer social environment and wider social environment
  • cultural environment : values, norms, attitudes and typical behavior, but also language, symbols and religion

With regard to purchasing behavior, the physical environment is relevant insofar as it creates natural and artificial framework conditions in which consumer behavior takes place.

The social environment plays an even bigger role, since consumer behavior is very much shaped by role expectations. These relationships and interrelationships are thematized in role theory . Suffice it to say that the individual consumer orients his buying and consumption behavior according to the expectations that his closer or wider social environment has of him, whereby he subordinates individual preferences mostly to social expectations. The actors to whom the consumer orients himself with regard to his role and behavior are his reference group .

These reference groups have both a comparative influence on purchasing behavior, since they are benchmarks for the individual's self-assessment, and a normative influence. The normative influence arises from the fact that the consumer believes that he has to meet the behavioral expectations of the reference group (norms) with the purpose of increasing acceptance in his own reference group. A special role is played by the opinion leader , who as a supposed expert and person with high credibility can strongly influence consumer behavior.

Perception, knowledge and the process of information processing

Perception in general is the process of information intake (selection) and information processing (organization and interpretation). For marketing, it is important that the consumer recognizes an objectively good service or a product as such. The condition is being active.

A much discussed topic is the subliminal , "subliminal" perception and whether and how this can or is used by advertising.

Another factor is knowledge or learning from the point of view of conditioning. On the one hand, you can use unskilled reflexes, e.g. E.g. the gripping reflex : handing customers advertising in the form of flyers as they walk past. On the other hand, specific conditioning can also be used, such as in associative advertising.

Instrumental conditioning can be used to improve customer loyalty or brand loyalty , with the help of the principle of reinforcement in psychology . There a distinction is made between positive and negative reinforcement, with positive reinforcers (rewards) often used in marketing. In practice, this can take the form of customer cards, discounts or promotions ("take 2 pay 1").

Another important aspect is the concept of learning on the model . The consumer is shown something and thereby encouraged to imitate it. The degree of fame / popularity of the presenter plays a major role.

Analysis of buying behavior

Buying behavior analysis can be done in many ways. If you consult the series of interpersonal determining factors, you get a kind of checklist with the help of which you can, for example, work on and examine each factor individually.

Activation can be examined physiologically by measuring the electrical skin resistance ( electrodermal activity ). Attitudes towards products or brands can be queried empirically, for example through surveys (in person, by telephone, online) or observations.

If one assumes a certain customer loyalty and customers are already in possession of so-called customer cards , their purchasing behavior can be specifically analyzed within the framework of the legal provisions, so that customer profiles can be created.

A classic example of the match from anonymous customer information provides the social commerce - Mail order amazon.com , suggests the other on the basis of own purchase decisions and the preferences of customers products that meet their own preferences.

The market research as one of the most important tools of marketing can provide further approaches for the systematic collection, processing and analysis of data on consumer behavior (u. A.).

Process of the purchase decision

The process that leads to a purchase decision and thus to the acquisition of a good can ideally be divided into six steps:

  1. Needs and shortages recognition (motive)
  2. Search for offers and alternatives
  3. Find external and internal information
  4. Evaluation of offers and alternatives
  5. Purchase decision
  6. Rating, feedback

The decision implies stimulation , which can be either internal or external, in order to achieve a desired situation or sensation. The prerequisite for this stimulation to occur is a need that is not or only insufficiently met .

Often, however, purchase decisions are also simplified with regard to the first four decision-making steps. The following typology of purchase decisions was therefore formed.

  • Extensive purchase decision - purchase only comes about after careful consideration
  • Limited purchase decision - simplified purchase decision
  • Habitualized purchase decision - habitual purchase decision
  • Impulsive purchase decision - stimulus-driven purchase decision, spontaneous purchase

The involvement , i.e. the cognitive or emotional participation of the consumer in the decision-making process, varies. While there is a very high cognitive participation in the extensive purchase decision, it is very low in the habitualized purchase. Even with the impulsive purchase decision, almost no cognitions are involved, but the emotional involvement can be very high.

In the case of the habitual purchase decision, the decision-making process is greatly shortened and the buyer selects an alternative from his evoked set . In the borderline case of addictive purchases , there is even no conscious decision-making process about the selection of the purchase object. The spontaneous purchase is sometimes referred to as an unplanned purchase (which was not planned when entering a store). However, no purchase is unplanned. But the decision-making process is extremely fast: unexpected perception of an article, brief check of needs and available financial resources, purchase decision - all in a split second.

Influencing methods

The producers try to influence the purchase decision in their favor with the help of the instruments of the marketing mix , and the retail companies for their part use a broad spectrum of psychostrategic and tactical instruments of retail marketing . Since most purchase decisions are made in the physical retail outlets, it is important to use stimulating stimuli and relaxing elements in the buying situation at the same time. "If the customer succeeds in putting customers in a (more) positive mood, this leads to a positive perception of the retail services offered as well as greater pleasure in buying, increased acceptance and greater sales success for the store."

In phases 2–5 of the above In the process of the purchase decision, the systematic follow-up by the provider is particularly relevant in order to win the customer.

Different meaning

Sometimes the term consumer behavior is also used to express the basic willingness of a person or a group to consume .

See also

literature

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Wöhe, Günter: Introduction to General Business Administration. 24th edition Munich: Verlag Franz Vahlen. P. 408
  2. ^ Heribert Meffert: Marketing. 10th edition. Gabler, 2008, ISBN 978-3-409-69018-8 , p. 106.
  3. ↑ Compare: Christian Homburg, Harley Krohmer: Marketing Management: Strategy - Instruments - Implementation - Corporate Management. 3. Edition. Gabler Verlag, 2009, Chapter 2.1.
  4. ↑ Compare: Christian Homburg, Harley Krohmer: Marketing Management: Strategy - Instruments - Implementation - Corporate Management. 3. Edition. Gabler Verlag, 2009, Chapter 2.1.1, p. 29.
  5. ↑ activation. In: Gabler Wirtschaftslexikon.
  6. ↑ Compare: Christian Homburg, Harley Krohmer: Marketing Management: Strategy - Instruments - Implementation - Corporate Management. 3. Edition. Gabler Verlag, 2009, Chapter 2.1.2, p. 31.
  7. ^ Christian Homburg, Harley Krohmer: Marketing management strategy - instruments - implementation - corporate management. 3. Edition. Gabler Verlag, Wiesbaden 2009, Chapter 2.1.5, pp. 40ff.
  8. ^ Christian Homburg, Harley Krohmer: Marketing management strategy - instruments - implementation - corporate management. 3. Edition. Gabler Verlag, Wiesbaden 2009, Chapter 2.1.6
  9. ↑ perception. In: Gabler Wirtschaftslexikon.
  10. ↑ Schenk: Psychology in Commerce. 2007, p. 196.