Nag Hammadi writings

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Nag Hammadi Codex II with the Apocryphon of John and the Gospel of Thomas

The Nag Hammadi scriptures (also known as the Nag Hammadi library ) are a collection of early Christian texts that are mainly attributable to Gnosis . It was found by local farmers in December 1945 near the small Egyptian town of Nag Hammadi . Most of these writings were not known at all or only in fragments . This particularly includes the Gospel of Thomas . They probably came from a period between the 1st and 4th centuries . Most of these scriptures are written primarily from the perspective of Gnostic Christians.

Scope and origin

The place where the writings were found is on the right bank of the Nile at the foot of the Gebel-al-Tarif, 10 km northeast of the Nile Bridge at Nag Hammadi. The Fund consists of thirteen leather-bound papyrus - codes . These contain a collection of 47 different texts. However, some texts are contained multiple times, which is why the collection consists of a total of 53 individual texts. The manuscripts date from the first half of the 4th century, the texts were probably written mainly in the 1st or 2nd century. The origin of the texts is predominantly assumed to be Egypt, but some texts also contain references to an origin from Syria. The language of the texts is Sahidic , a dialect of Coptic , but it is assumed that these are translations from Greek .

It is not known who collected the texts. Possibly it is the library of an indefinite Gnostic community. However, due to the proximity of a Pachomian monastery and the material used in the binding, which includes letters and receipts from the Pachomian monks, it is more likely that the collection was part of the library of that monastery. In this case it is unclear whether the collection was put together as a source of information on the fight against Gnostic heretics , or whether the texts in connection with the 39th Easter letter of Athanasius (around the same time) were removed from the monastery writings as heretical.

Find history

Location of Nag Hammadi

In December 1945, Egyptian farmers dug at the foot of the Jabal al-Tarif, a rocky slope about 11 km northeast of Nag Hammadi , for a natural fertilizer, the so-called sabakh . One of these farmers was Muhammed Ali, a member of the Samman clan, who years later told the story of the find. While digging under a boulder to which they had tied their camels, the farmers came across a jug made of red clay almost three feet high .

At first there were concerns about opening or smashing the jar, since it could hold a jinn . That on the other hand gold could also be the content overcame the concerns. When it was smashed, however, it turned out that the content consisted of thirteen papyrus codices bound in leather , the value of which was initially not recognized. One of these thirteen codes was apparently lost (the volume now counted as Code XIII was part of Code VI).

First they were to be divided up, but in the end the other farmers left them to Muhammad Ali, who took them home to the village of al-Qasr. There he threw them near the stove, and some parts of the suspicious documents were burned by Muhammad Ali's mother Umm Ahmad (probably the larger part of Codex XII, the cover of Codex X and some loose sheets and fragments that are missing today).

Since Muhammad Ali was involved in a blood feud over the murder of his father and the police had searched his house several times, he deposited the books with a Coptic priest named Basilius Abd al-Masih. His brother-in-law Raghib Andrawus recognized the possible value and took them to Cairo. Here he showed them to a Coptic doctor, George Sobhi, who notified the Antiquities Office . After some negotiations and an expense allowance of £ 300, the find became the property of the Egyptian state. On October 4, 1946, it was included in the holdings of the Coptic Museum in Cairo.

Parts of the find had already come into the possession of Muhammad Ali's neighbors, from where they found their way to Cairo and fell into the hands of a Cypriot trader named Phokion Tano . One volume in particular, now Codex I, was purchased from a Belgian antiquarian named Albert Eid and shipped out of the country. This codex was bought by the Jung Institute in Zurich on May 10, 1952 , which is why it is now known as the Codex Jung . After a few entanglements and delays, this also ended up in the Coptic Museum, as did the volumes still in the hands of Tano, who had meanwhile sold them to an Italian collector named Dattari.

Meaning and content

Before these finds, only three original Gnostic manuscripts were known: Codex Brucianus , Codex Askewianus and Codex Berolinensis Gnosticus 8502 . These manuscripts were the only direct sources of Gnosis until the discovery of the Nag Hammadi scriptures. Otherwise there was only the indirect testimony of the church fathers. The Nag Hammadi finds thus contain the most important documents for research into Gnosis . The scriptures come from different directions of Gnosis, so scripts of the Valentinians and the Setian Gnosis are represented. In addition to these, there are also more (early) church-influenced texts, many of which are assigned to the third and early fourth centuries. This trend has greatly encouraged theological speculation within the church. There are also hermetically and wisdom-oriented texts and those that have absolutely nothing to do with Gnosis, such as a fragment from Plato's state .

The titles are either taken from the so-called colophon , in which they are in part already secondary addenda, or they have been repositioned in the course of the translation. Most of the texts were unknown before the discovery of the Nag Hammadi scriptures, but there are also some that have been found in whole or in part elsewhere; these include, for example, the Gospel of Thomas and John's Apocryphon . In the case of the early Doctors of the Church , mentions or short quotations can be found in condemning pamphlets, the title or content of which could be allusions to Nag Hammadi writings. But they are often not precise enough or, as in the Gospel of Egypt , designate other texts.

The Nag Hammadi Fund is not only important for Coptic dialect studies and represents an enrichment for Gnosis research. The scriptures unfold in very different ways descriptions of the heavenly world and the associated cosmogonic , soteriological and eschatological questions. The encratic and ethical orientation of many texts should also be emphasized . Some texts offer a unique insight into the Gnostic polemics against church Christianity, others, such as the Prayer of Paul, the Hermetic Prayer and the Three Steles of Seth as well as numerous hymn traditions, give an insight into lived Gnostic piety.

The writings are often ascribed to apostles , so as pseudapostolic writings they belong to the New Testament apocrypha.

A frequent motif is that of the special revelation: between the resurrection and ascension to heaven, Jesus appears to individual or to all disciples and instructs them in esoteric teachings, which should remain secret from the rest of Christianity. The disciple Maria Magdalena also plays a special role . The starting point of the special revelation is the appearance of the risen Lord (Mk 16.9–20 LUT ; Mt 28.16–20 LUT ; Lk 24.36–53 LUT and Acts 1.1–14 LUT ). According to the Acts of the Apostles, the risen Christ spoke to his disciples about the kingdom of God for forty days. These conversations of the risen One want to reproduce some Nag Hammadi texts. Separate conversations between the risen Christ and Mary Magdalene and two disciples not named by name are mentioned in the secondary Mark's conclusion ( Mk 16.9ff.  LUT ).

Gospel of Thomas

The Gospel of Thomas , a collection of sayings from Jesus that probably dates back to the 2nd century, is of particular importance. Some of the 114 sayings have parallels in the Synoptic Gospels , others could come from the first century or from Jesus himself. This is why the Gospel of Thomas has a high priority especially in North American research for the question of the historical Jesus.

The Gospel of Thomas became known to the wider public through the film Stigmata with the (freely translated) sentence:

“Jesus said: 'I am the light that is above all. I am the universe; all has emerged from me and all has come to me. Pick up a stone and you will find me, split a wood and I'll be there. '"

- Gospel of Thomas, Proverbs 77

List of Nag Hammadi texts

The following list follows in the order of the numbering of the codes and writings in use today, a reference to NHC I, 5 means the text The three-part treatise . The titles of the publications and the abbreviations follow the Nag Hammadi German edition published by Schenke et al . If different, abbreviations of the German translation by Lüdemann and Janßen are given in brackets. Scriptures handed down several times in the codices such as B. John's Apocryphon (II, 1; III, 1; IV, 1) appear in italics after the first occurrence.

title Code, No. abbreviation description
The prayer of the apostle Paul (Precatio Pauli) I, 1 PrecPl
(OrPls) 		Gnostic prayer
The Apocryphon of James , also: Epistula Jacobi ("Letter of James") I, 2 EpJac
(EpJk) 		In form a mixture of letter, dialogue and vision report. Represents a secret teaching (apocryphal) that James and Peter are said to have received after the resurrection of Jesus (not identical to the letter of James in the New Testament!).
The Gospel of Truth (Evangelium Veritatis) I, 3 EV
(EvVer) 		Sermon-like text with echoes of the Valentine Gnosis
The letter from Rheginus I, 4 Rheg
(EpRheg) 		Also known as the Treatise on the Resurrection
The three-part tract ( Tractatus Tripartitus ) I, 5 TractTrip
(TracTrip) 		Extensive theological treatise which is attributed to the Valentine Gnosis.
The apocryphon of John II, 1 AJ Gnostic gospel of dialogue , which is assigned to the Setian gnosis. Available in several versions (next to II, 1 also III, 1 and IV, 1).
The Gospel of Thomas II, 2 EvThom
(EvTh) 		Gospel of Apocryphal Proverbs. Contains independent parallels to the canonical gospels. Individual sayings are considered real words of Jesus.
The Gospel of Philip II, 3 EvPhil Gnostic Gospel of Proverbs
The hypostasis of the archons II, 4 HA
(HypArch) 		Two part font. The first part contains an interpretation of Genesis 1-6, the second part a revelation dialogue in which Norea is taught by the angel Eleleth. The writing is assigned to the Setian gnosis.
From the origin of the world II, 5 UW
(OT) 		Also known as "Untitled Font". Gnostic textbook on the origin of the world, in a sense a Gnostic alternative to the story of Genesis .
The Exegesis on the Soul (Exegesis de Anima) II, 6 ExAn Sermon-like Gnostic text about the fall and salvation of the soul
The Thomas book II, 7 LibThom
(LibTh) 		Also known as the Book of athletes Thomas known
The apocryphon of John III, 1 AJ see above (II, 1)
The Coptic Gospel of Egypt III, 2 AegEv
(EvÄg) 		Actual title: "The holy book of the great invisible spirit". Subtitle: The Egyptian Gospel.
The letter to Eugnostus III, 3 Eug (Eu) Gnostic lesson with a polemic against the Hellenistic philosophy, which is contrasted with the Gnostic view of the becoming of the divine.
The Sophia Jesu Christi (Sophia Jesu Christi) III, 4 SJC Christian revision of the letter to Eugnostus, transformed into a gospel of dialogue.
The Savior's Dialogue III, 5 Dial (DialSal) Dialogue between Jesus and his disciples. The text is badly damaged.
The apocryphon of John IV, 1 AJ see above (II, 1)
The Gospel of Egypt IV, 2 AegEv
(EvÄg) 		see above (III, 2)
The letter to Eugnostus V, 1 Eug
(Eu) 		see above (III, 3)
The apocalypse of Paul V, 2 ApcPl
(ApokPls) 		Revelation about the rapture and heavenly journey of Paul
The first apocalypse of James V, 3 1ApcJac
(1ApokJk) 		Revelation dialogue between Jesus and James about salvation against the background of the impending martyrdom of James. - A different version of the text is handed down in the Codex Tchacos .
The second apocalypse of James V, 4 2ApcJac
(2ApokJk) 		Hymn speech by James before his execution.
The Apocalypse of Adam V, 5 ApcAd
(ApokAd) 		Revelations of Adam to his son Set, which were then passed on from him. Describes the paradisiacal original state, fall, flood and gives eschatological promises of salvation or threats.
The deeds of Peter and the twelve apostles VI, 1 ActPt Mixture of Acts of the Apostles and Gospel of Dialogue. Describes a journey of Peter and the apostles, the encounter with a pearl seller and finally with Lithargoel, who reveals himself as the risen Jesus Christ.
Bronte VI, 2 Bronte Hymn text. Self-revelation of a being that describes itself in opposites. The meaning of the title Bronte ("thunder") is unclear.
The original teaching ( Authentikos Logos ) VI, 3 AuthLog Gnostic text with a metaphorical description of the state of the soul in the world
The thought of our great power VI, 4 Noema Heterogeneous Gnostic script. The framework is the revelation speech of the eponymous “wisdom” or “great power”.
Plato : State 588a-589b VI, 5 plato The original text is not Gnostic, but the version contained in the Nag Hammadi texts has been heavily modified in the Gnostic sense.
About eightness and nineness (De Ogdeade et Enneade) VI, 6 OgdEnn
(OgEn) 		Hermetic dedication in the form of a ritual dialogue between Hermes and his pupil (Tat).
Hermetic Prayer (Precatio Hermetica) VI, 7a PrecHerm
(OrHerm) 		Considered the conclusion of the previous scripture On Eightness and Ninthness . The text has been passed down several times in the Hermetic literature.
Scribe note VI, 7b Shot The assignment to the previous work On Eightness and Nineness or to the following Asklepius fragment is unclear.
Asclepius VI, 8th Ascl Excerpt from the middle part of the Hermetic Asklepius , a hermetic instruction dialogue . The text shows major deviations from the fully preserved Latin version of Asklepius, but is closer to the traditional Greek fragments.
The paraphrase of the sea VII, 1 ParSem
(ParaSeem) 		Seem communicates the revelations that he experienced from Derdekeas (a redeeming figure) and on his journey into heaven, in pictorial descriptions.
The second Logos of the great Seth VII, 2 2LogSeth Christian-Gnostic script that represents docetistic teachings and opposes Jewish and Christian-Orthodox positions. A first logos of the great Seth has not come down to us.
The Apocalypse of Peter VII, 3 ApcPt
(ApokPetr) 		Gnostic revelation dialogue between Jesus and Peter with a (docetic) vision of the crucifixion of Jesus. Scripture has no relation to the apocryphal Apocalypse of Peter known from early Christian times .
Teachings of Silvanus VII, 4 Silv
(Sil) 		Syncretistic wisdom teachings with Egyptian, Jewish and Christian elements in the form of a warning speech from a teacher to his pupil. The Silvanus named in the title is occasionally identified with Silas , Paul's companion.
The three steles of Seth VII, 5 3StelSeth Liturgical-ritual text attributable to the Setian Gnosis, consisting of three hymns to Autogenes , Barbelo and the Ungenerated Father .
Zostrianos VIII, 1 Zostr A pseudoepigrapher of the Setian treatise in the form of a report on a journey to heaven by Zostrianos, ascribed to Zarathustra (= Zostrianos) . It is assumed that this text corresponds to the scripture against which Plotinus wrote a refutation.
The Letter of Peter to Philip VIII, 2 EpPt
(EpPetr / Phil) 		Peter's letter to Philip provides the framework. This is followed by a dialogue between the disciples and the risen Jesus, a speech by Peter, followed by the reception of the Spirit and the sending of the disciples. Christian text with a strong Gnostic character. - A slightly different version of the text is handed down in fragments in the Codex Tchacos .
Melchizedek IX, 1 Melch Heavily damaged text (19 of about 745 lines have been preserved). Melchizedek here is a heavenly priest (the relationship with the King of Salem Melchizedek mentioned in the Old Testament is unclear) who appears as a typus for Christ.
Norea IX, 2 OdNor
(Norea) 		Setian hymn. Norea asks for redemption and is heard.
The Testimony of Truth ( Testmonium Veritatis ) IX, 3 TestVer Gnostic admonition with polemical attacks on Orthodox Christians and members of other Gnostic schools. Particular emphasis is placed on the importance of sexual asceticism.
Marsanes X, 1 Mar
(Mars) 		Heavily damaged text. Gnostic revelation partly with magical content ( speculation of letters and numbers ). The title is associated with a gnostic prophet "Marsianos" mentioned by Epiphanius .
Interpretation of Gnosis XI, 1 Inter Text only partially preserved and also badly damaged. Gnostic-Christian discourse on the fallen Ekklesia (Church), her condition and the restoration of her heavenly perfection.
Valentinian Exposition ( Expositio Valentiniana ) XI, 2 ExpVal
(ExVal) 		Treatise with a presentation of the Valentinian system ( cosmology , anthropology , soteriology and eschatology).
Allogenes XI, 3 Allog Setian revelation with an account of the ascent of allogene into heavenly spheres
Hypsiphrons XI, 4 Hyps Short revelation, only preserved in fragments. It deals with the descent of the redeeming figure Hypsiphrone ("high-minded", at the same time the speaker) into the world.
The Sentences of the Sextus XII, 1 Sextus
(SentSex) 		Coptic translation of the Sextussentenzen, a collection of Christian sayings with originally 451 sayings (sentences), of which 127 have been preserved in the Nag Hammadi version.
The Gospel of Truth (Evangelium Veritatis) XII, 2 EV
(EvVer) 		only partially preserved, see above (I, 3)
(Wisdom) fragments XII, 3 FragSap Fragmentary, very poorly preserved text. Little can be said about the content.
The tripartite Protennoia XIII, 1 Protennoia
(TrimProt) 		Setian script. The revelation of the deity in three forms, namely as Protennoia ("call"), Heimarmene ("voice") and Logos ("word").
From the origin of the world XIII, 2 UW (OT) see above (II, 5)

expenditure

Editions in English

The original texts together with translations into English and apparatus were edited as part of the Nag Hammadi Studies (NHS) series. The following table shows the code and font number with the corresponding NHS tape:

Code, No. title
I. H. Attridge (Ed.): Nag Hammadi Codex I (The Jung Codex).
  • Vol. I. Introductions, Texts, Translations, Indices. NHS XXII. Brill, Leiden et al. 1985.
  • Vol. II. Notes. NHS XXIII. Brill, Leiden et al. 1985.
II, 2-7

XIII, 2

Bentley Layton (Ed.): Nag Hammadi Codex II, 2-7: Together with XIII, 2 *, BRIT. LIB. OR.4926 (1), and P. OXY. 1, 654, 655.
  • Vol. I. Gospel according to Thomas, Gospel according to Philip, Hypostasis of the Archons, and Indexes. NHS XX. (The Coptic Gnostic Library, ed. JMRobinson). Brill, Leiden et al. 1989.
  • Vol. II. On the Origin of the World, Expository Treatise on the Soul, Book of Thomas the Contender. NHS XXI. Brill, Leiden et al. 1989.
III, 3-4

V, 1

Douglas M. Parrott (ed.): Nag Hammadi Codices III, 3-4 and V, 1: Papyrus Berolinensis 8502,3 and Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 1081: Eugnostos and the Sophia of Jesus Christ. NHS XXVII. Brill, Leiden et al. 1991.
III, 5 S. Emmel (Ed.): Nag Hammadi Codex III, 5: The Dialogue of the Savior. NHS XXVI. Brill, Leiden et al. 1984.
V, 2-5

VI

DM Parrott (Ed.): Nag Hammadi Codices V, 2-5 and VI with Papyrus Berolinensis 8502 , 1 and 4. NHS XI. Brill, Leiden et al. 1979.
VIII JH Sieber (Ed.): Nag Hammadi Codices VIII. NHS XXXI. Brill, Leiden et al. 1991.
IX

X

BA Pearson (Ed.): Nag Hammadi Codices IX and X. NHS XV. Brill, Leiden et al. 1981.
XI

XII
XIII

 CW Hedrick (Ed.): Nag Hammadi Codices XI, XII, XIII. NHS XXVIII. Brill, Leiden et al. 1990.

English translation of the Nag Hammadi texts:

James M. Robinson: The Nag Hammadi Library in English. Harper San Francisco / New York 1978, 1990, ISBN 0-06-066934-9 .

Editions in German

The texts, some of which were badly damaged, were initially published as individual fonts after their reconstruction. They were published in two competing projects by Martin Krause and Pahor Lahib and by Johannes Leipoldt and Hans-Martin Schenke . It was only since 1977 that they became known to a wider public through a complete English translation.

A complete German translation is the work Nag Hammadi Deutsch of the Berlin Working Group for Coptic-Gnostic Scriptures, a long-term research project, originally under the direction of Hans-Martin Schenke:

Hans-Martin Schenke et al. (Ed.): Nag Hammadi German . Introduced and translated by members of the Berlin Working Group for Coptic-Gnostic Scriptures. de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2001/2003.
  • Volume 1: NHC I, 1 - V, 1 . (= The Greek Christian writers of the first centuries. NF 8. Coptic-Gnostic writings. Volume 2). Berlin 2001, ISBN 3-11-017234-8 .
  • Volume 2: NHC V, 2 - XIII, 1, BG 1 and 4 . (= The Greek Christian writers of the first centuries. NF 12. Coptic-Gnostic writings. Volume 3). Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-11-017656-4 .
  • Single volume study edition: 3., revised. u. exp. Edition. Berlin / Boston 2013, ISBN 978-3-11-031234-8 .

The first translation of the entire text with introductions by Gerd Lüdemann and Martina Janßen was published in 1997 under the title Bible of the Heretics :

Gerd Lüdemann , Martina Janßen (transl.): The Bible of the heretics. The Gnostic Scriptures from Nag Hammadi - First complete German translation. Stuttgart 1997, ISBN 3-87173-128-5 . Available online, see section Weblinks .

Some of the texts were translated into:

Martin Krause, Kurt Rudolph: The Gnosis. Volume 2. Coptic and Mandaean Sources. Artemis Verlag, Zurich / Stuttgart 1971, Artemis & Winkler, Düsseldorf / Zurich 1997, ISBN 3-7608-1150-7 .

For popular use, those Nag Hammadi texts, the text of which has largely been preserved, have been reformulated and commented on by Konrad Dietzfelbinger in four individual volumes according to Dietzfelbinger's classification of the texts in Edition Argo:

Konrad Dietzfelbinger:

See also

literature

Series publications
Monographs
  • Gerd Lüdemann , Martina Janßen: suppressed prayers. Gnostic Spirituality in Early Christianity . Radius-Verlag, Stuttgart 1997, ISBN 3-87173-118-8 .
  • John D. Turner, Ann McGuire (Eds.): The Nag Hammadi Library after Fifty Years. Proceedings of the 1995 Society of Biblical Literature Commemoration. (= Nag Hammadi and Manichaean studies. Volume 44). Brill, Leiden et al. 1997, ISBN 90-04-10824-6 .
  • David M. Scholer: Nag Hammadi Bibliography 1970–1994. (= Nag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies. Volume 32). Brill, Leiden et al. 1997, ISBN 90-04-09473-3 .
  • Charles W. Hedrick, Robert Hodgson Jr. (Eds.): Nag Hammadi, Gnosticism and Early Christianity. Hendrickson, Peabody Mas 1986, ISBN 0-913573-16-7 .
  • Elaine Pagels : The Gnostic Gospels. Random House, New York 1979, ISBN 0-394-50278-7 .
  • David M. Scholer: Nag Hammadi Bibliography 1948–1969. (= Nag Hammadi Studies. Volume 1). Brill, Leiden et al. 1970, ISBN 90-04-02603-7 .
  • Otto Betz : The Paraclete. Advocate in heretical Judaism, in the Gospel of John and in newly found Gnostic texts. (= Work on the history of late Judaism and early Christianity. Volume 2). Brill, Leiden / Cologne 1963.
  • Jean Doresse: Les Livres secrets des gnostiques d'Égypte. Plon, Paris 1958. (Rocher, Monaco 1984, ISBN 2-268-00307-8 ).
  • Katharina Ceming , Jürgen Werlitz : The forbidden Gospels. Apocryphal writings. Piper, Munich 2007, ISBN 978-3-492-25027-6 .
  • Uwe-Karsten Plisch: What is not in the Bible. Apocryphal writings of early Christianity. German Bible Society, Stuttgart 2006, ISBN 3-438-06036-1 .
  • Carsten Colpe : Introduction to the writings from Nag Hammadi. Aschendorff Verlag, Münster 2011, ISBN 978-3-402-11021-8 .
  • Hugo Lundhaug, Lance Jenott (Eds.): The Nag Hammadi codices and late antique Egypt . Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2017, ISBN 978-3-16-153973-2 .
items
  • Louis Painchaud: La Bibliothèque copte de Nag Hammadi. In: L'Étude de la religion au Québec - Bilan et prospective. Sous la direction de Jean-Marc Larouche and Guy Ménard. Les Presses de l'Université Laval, Saint-Nicolas 2001, ISBN 2-7637-7835-6 .
  • James M. Robinson, The Discovery of the Nag Hammadi Codices. In: Biblical Archeology. Vol. 42, 1979, pp. 206-224.
  • Carsten Colpe : Pagan, Jewish and Christian tradition in the writings from Nag Hammadi IX. In: Yearbook for Antiquity and Christianity . Vol. 16, Münster 1973, pp. 106-126. ISSN  0075-2541

Web links

Commons : Nag Hammadi Writings  - Collection of Images, Videos and Audio Files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Claus Speer: The course in early Christianity. Retrieved May 5, 2018 [1]
  2. ↑ German translation of the Nag-Hammadie writings by Gerd Lüdemann and Martina Janßen, http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~rzellwe/nhs/nhs.html ( Memento from September 7, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
  3. ↑ Nag Hammadi German. Volume 1, p. 2.
  4. ↑ Some texts are written in the Lycopolitan dialect, another form of Coptic.
  5. ↑ GND 1176586408
  6. ^ Corinna Mühlstedt: The misunderstood witness. Deutschlandfunk, April 17, 2019, accessed on April 13, 2020 (German).
  7. ↑ Porphyrios : Vita Plotini 16.3ff.