Nile mosaic from Palestrina
The Nile mosaic of Palestrina (also known as the Barberine mosaic ) is a 5.85 × 4.31 m large antique picture mosaic from the sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia in Praeneste , today's Palestrina , and is the best preserved and most important ancient Nile landscape . A version reconstructed from fragments is in the Museo Nazionale Prenestino , the former Palazzo Barberini-Colonna. One segment is in the Antikensammlung in Berlin .
Origin and dating
location
The Nile mosaic was originally located in an apse of a hall building that was part of the so-called lower complex of the sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia. This apse was 6.87 m wide, 4.35 m deep and about 10 m high. It was directly connected to the rock there. Because of the porosity of the rock, it is believed that water seeped out of the rock and covered the mosaic with a thin layer of water. It is possible that there were sockets in the three niches breaking through the apse arch, each about 80 cm deep and 90 cm wide. So it is a cave nymphaeum . The hall itself was 22 m long, 14 m wide and at least 14 m high. Under its floor was the Praeneste aerarium .
On the left side of the hall there was a passage to a larger, possibly covered, at least two-story building, which was divided by several rows of columns. To the left of this columned hall there is another grotto nymphaeum, the floor of which was adorned with another mosaic, some of which is still in place, the so-called fish mosaic of Palestrina .
In front of the portico there was a temple, some remains of which are still under the church of San Agapito. To which deity the temple was dedicated is unknown.
Sanctuary or forum?
The interpretation and dating of the Nile mosaic is just as controversial as the function of the entire building complex.
At the end of the 19th century, Orazio Marucchi took the view in several publications that the complex was the actual sanctuary of Fortuna, based on a description of the sanctuary at Cicero . Accordingly, the portico was identified as the Area sacra or temple forecourt, the nymphaeum with the fish mosaic was considered to be the site of the sortes Praenestinae , the lots to whom the sanctuary owed its reputation as an oracle site, and the building with the apse was the Aedes Fortunae , the actual sanctuary of Fortuna.
The presence of the two mosaics seemed to support the assumption, since it is mentioned in the natural history of Pliny that Sulla donated a lithostrotos , i.e. a stone floor covering, to the sanctuary of Fortuna in Praeneste :
- Lithostrota coeptavere iam sub Sulla; parvolis certe crustis exstat hodieque quod in Fortunae delubro Praeneste fecit.
- “Lithostrota were already spreading in Sulla's time. In any case, such a covering, consisting of small pieces of marble, still exists today, which Sulla had placed in the sanctuary of Fortuna in Praeneste. "
Richard Delbrueck in particular made use of this line of argument . It does not seem certain whether lithostrotos ( Greek λιθόστρωτος ) can be understood as a large-format mosaic picture. For picture mosaics, there was specifically the term emblema in Greek ( ἔμβληεμα "the inserted "), from which the word emblem is derived. The meaning of the word came from the fact that picture mosaics were built in a box shape and then embedded with the box in a larger, more simply designed floor area. The Romans, on the other hand, specifically referred to pictorial mosaics as opus vermiculatum .
Find history
It is not known exactly when the mosaic was found. It is first mentioned in 1607 in a description of the diocese of Palestrina , which shows that it was possibly discovered as early as 1588. It became known in 1614 through Federico Cesi , the founder of the Accademia dei Lincei , who in turn made Cardinal Francesco Barberini aware of the importance of the find. The Barberini were the masters of Palestrina at that time. The cardinal depository of Maffeo Barberini, elected Pope as Urban VIII in 1623 , had the mosaic cut into segments between 1624 and 1626 and brought to Rome. The mosaic passed into the possession of Lorenzo Malagotti , Cardinal Secretary of State and also an uncle of Francesco Barberini. Malagotti made the segment with the pergola in 1628 as a state gift to Ferdinand II Medici , Grand Duke of Tuscany and through several other owners finally in the antique collection in Berlin.
After Francesco Barberini became director of the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana in 1627 , the mosaic returned to his disposal. Through Battista Calandra , the most important mosaic artist of the time, Cardinal Barberini had the mosaic restored and the segments connected to form an overall composition that closed the existing gaps. The segment with the pergola has been replaced by a copy. This restored shape essentially corresponds to the one known today.
The mosaic was now famous and the citizens of Palestrina asked for its repatriation. In 1640, Cardinal Barberini ordered the transfer to the Palazzo Colonna-Barberini in Palestrina. However, improper storage during transport caused considerable damage to the mosaic. The boxes had been stored upside down (face down), so that the picture stones detached themselves from the composite when driving on bumpy roads, which is why the mosaic had to be restored again after arriving in Palestrina.
description
Due to these changeable fates, there would be great uncertainty today as to which part of the found inventory is preserved and which parts of the preserved parts are original, if the scholar Cassiano Dal Pozzo had not had watercolors by a painter (probably Vincenzo Vanenti) before 1640 (probably already 1626) of the segments made in their former condition. These watercolors were discovered and published by Helen Whitehouse in the Royal Collection at Windsor Castle in the 1970s . These watercolors show that what existed at the time has been preserved except for a small fragment. In addition, during the last restoration by Salvatore Aurigemma, most of the ancient parts could be identified based on the back of the mosaic.
However, the extent to which the current arrangement of the segments corresponds to the original arrangement remains unclear. Nor is it clear how large the lost part of the ancient state is. Since the dimensions of the site are significantly wider at 6.78 × 4.35 and also have bulges in the apse arch, it could be that almost a meter of the ancient image is lost in width.
The following sections describe each segment. The numbering corresponds to that used by Helen Whitehouse, which also corresponds to the numbering of the Dal Pozzo copies. Exceptions are segments 20 and 21, which Paul Meyboom identified as part of the original mosaic.
Segment 1
Segment 1, which is shown as a unit on the Dal Pozzo copy, has been divided into two parts. These parts (segment 1a and 1b) are now positioned on the top left and right. Presumably segment 1640 broke and the parts were misplaced during assembly. The segment primarily shows various animal species that could be considered typical of ancient Ethiopia. The old Aithiopia ( Αιθιοπία ) is not to be confused with modern Ethiopia , rather it referred to an extensive area consisting of Egypt above the 1st cataract , Nubia , Sudan and northern parts of modern Ethiopia.
On the left you can see a line of birds (herons or cranes) that appear to be falling. One of the birds is being eaten by a large snake. Pliny and Claudius Aelianus report large snakes that are able to catch birds in flight. The species shown would be the Northern Rock Python ( Python sebae ), which due to its size (it can reach a length of over 7 m), aggressiveness (it also attacks larger mammals and humans) and appearance (light, yellowish underside; the Upper side is brown with black borders) corresponds well to the representation. The similarity with an illustration from Brehm's Thierleben showing Python sebae eating a bird is also interesting . In addition, copies of the type in the Roman Circus put on display and Agatharchides reports in his (not received) book on the Red Sea ( Περὶ Πόντου Έρυθροῦ ) from catching a aithiopischen boa constrictor to Ptolemy II. Was brought and the visitors of Alexandria a remarkable spectacle when they tried to tame them by starving them. A tree or bush identified as a toothbrush tree can be seen in the background .
Behind the snake is a flat rock formation, similar to a small table mountain . The snake seems to be crawling out of a crack in the rock. Embedded in the rock are several, partly greenish, partly reddish oval objects, which are presumably supposed to represent gemstones as they are often found in Nubia and Upper Egypt and have been imported from there since ancient times. It could be turquoise , which Pliny reports was found in egg-shaped deposits in the rock. Agatharchides gives a corresponding description of the topaz sites .
On the rock tablet you can see a strange hybrid creature with a human head and the body of an ungulate. The label is ΗΟΝΟΚΕΝΤΑΥΡΑ . The onokentauros was a mythical creature made up of humans and donkeys , similar to the more well-known centaur , who is a mixture of humans and horses. This animal was described by Pythagoras, a navigator and geographer who explored the coast of the Red Sea on behalf of Ptolemy II. The account he wrote about the trip has not survived, but is quoted by other ancient authors:
- Its body resembles a donkey, it is gray, but becomes whitish under the flanks. He has a human torso with breasts and a human face that is surrounded by a thick mane. He uses his arms both to grasp and hold things and to run. He is of a violent temper and cannot stand imprisonment.
Which animal is the basis of this description is the subject of speculation. Both a species of monkey and the wildebeest were suspected as a model. In the Nile mosaic, the onokentauros has no arms, the head rests directly on the chest, and strangely enough the front hooves are split (as in antelopes ), but the hind hooves are not (as in donkeys).
The onocentaurus is also mentioned in other places: In the Septuagint it appears as a kind of jackal that lives in the ruins of Babylon ( Isa 13.22 EU ; 34.14 EU ) In the Physiologus it is an animal with noble character traits with bestial ones Unites instincts, making it resemble humans.
Right of Onokentauros sees sit a monkey, probably a monkey . Since only baboons occur in the areas of Aithiopia apart from monkeys, but baboons are represented differently in segments 6 and 7, it is assumed that it is a monkey.
At the foot of the rock, to the right of the snake, you can see two spotted animals confronting each other, next to them the designation Θ Ѡ ΑΝΤΕϹ ( Toantes ), a plural form of θώς (tos) , which denotes jackals, leopards, wolves and similar predators. The animals shown here are apparently spotted hyenas ( Crocuta crocuta ). Because of the spots, it was assumed in ancient times that the spotted hyena was a cross between a wolf and a leopard . In a manuscript of the Kynegetica of Oppian of Apamea from the 10th century there are images of this pairing as well as the crossing result, which is very similar to the representation in the Nile mosaic. Alternatively, it was considered that the Thoantes could be hyena dogs ( Lycaon pictus ), which also have a spotted design, but no dots.
Segment 2
In the upper part of the segment you can see six black hunters who are armed with bows and round shields and are just getting ready to shoot. The prey is not visible. The representation corresponds to the description of Aithiopian tribes in Diodorus: they are black and their hair is woolly. They are armed with javelins, long bows and shields made of raw ox skin. They were skilled archers and would meet birds in flight. As for clothing, the description of Diodorus does not cover, because there is that some of them were quite naked or apron made of sheepskin or hair braided belt deceive, but on the Nilmosaik they wear a kind of tunic with belt, it could, however, also include untanned skins.
To the right of it are two monkeys sitting in a bush and below the bush a third monkey is sitting on a rock. One of the two monkeys in the bush climbs along a branch. Above his head is the inscription ϹΦΙΝΓΙΑ (SPHINGIA) , which is probably a plural form of the deminutive of Sphinx ( Greek Σφίγξ ). In ancient times, six types of monkey were distinguished:
- kallitriches (" fair-haired ")
- kephi : In Diodor kepus , κηρους (kepous) in Pliny the Elder, κῆβος (kebos) in Aristotle , also κεῖπος (keipos) .
- kerkopitheki ("tail monkeys ")
- kynokephali ("dog heads"): The name suggests that they are baboons, as the baboon's snout is reminiscent of that of a dog.
- satyri ( satyrs )
- sphinges (sphinxes): Diodorus reports that this type of monkey occurs both in Aithiopia and in the land of the troglodytes and that they resemble a sphinx in appearance, only that their mane is shaggy.
Assigning modern taxa to these various ancient species names is difficult or even impossible. Some of the species were also not well known or only known from hearsay, e.g. B. Pliny says of the animal called kepous that it was only seen once in Rome at the games of Pompey Magnus , and never again afterwards.
Six monkeys appear in the Nile mosaic, three of them are labeled, namely the Sphinx monkey here, kepion in segment 6 and satyrus in segment 7. According to the description in Diodorus, a sphinx monkey should be expected as a maned monkey, which is what he does Monkeys climbing over the branch also applies. The other two monkeys seem to be more like vervet monkeys. Several matching species can be found in the area in question today, namely the mantled baboon ( Papio hamadryas ), the Ethiopian green monkey ( Chlorocebus aethiops ) (although the striking black face does not correspond to the depiction), and the hussar monkey ( Erythrocebus patas ). However, given the climate changes in North Africa in the last 2000 years, the areas of distribution in antiquity may have been very different. For example, species that only occur in West Africa today could also be considered.
To the left below the bush stands a strange four-legged animal with a crocodile-like snout on a slab of rock. The text of the label is ΞΙΟΙΓ , which doesn't make any sense. Since no inscription appears on the Dal Pozzo copies, it has been assumed that the inscription was added later. But it can also be a mutilated remnant of a longer word that the copyist overlooked. As a supplement, ΣΑΡΚΟΦΑΓΟΣ SARKOPHAGOS "carnivore") was suggested, since Agatharchides mentions a carnivorous buffalo ( sarkophagos tauros ) as one of the animal species of Aithiopia . The species depicted remains unclear. The assumption that it could be a warthog or a hippopotamus contradicts the fact that both species are depicted as life-like and clearly identifiable elsewhere in the mosaic.
Below the rock with the ΞΙΟΙΓ , two large crabs stretch their claws out of the water. There were both marine crab species, particularly on the Red Sea coast, and freshwater crab species found in the Nile.
Segment 3
As in segment 2, you can see dark-skinned hunters who hunt birds (herons or cranes) with a bow and arrow. The clothes are different because the two hunters here wear a kind of chiton exomis that is only closed over the left shoulder, giving the right arm more freedom of movement. Both hunters are ready to shoot, the one in front kneels in a kind of half- splitting act , the one behind stands upright with legs apart.
The hunters are halfway up a rock, above which a group of low-flying birds can be seen. You will be accompanied by a tall, slender dog that will jump at the birds, possibly a greyhound or a related species such as a dog. B. the Tesem . Below the dog is a peacock that is difficult to see in the mosaic and easily identifiable in the copy by means of the train . Peacocks are originally from Asia, especially India, and were not native to Egypt in ancient times. However, they were imported early: Athenaios reports that peacocks were shown along with other Indian and Ethiopian animals in the procession of Ptolemy II, which depicts the triumph of Dionysus . In general, there was no clear distinction between Indian and Ethiopian animals, as it was assumed until the Middle Ages that there was a land connection between India and Ethiopia, which would have turned the Indian Ocean into an inland sea. In addition, the trade route between Ptolemaic Egypt and India ran through Ethiopian ports on the Red Sea.
Below the peacock you can see a white and a brown bird standing on the rock. Meyboom suspects that it is a gray or purple heron . To their left a large animal disappears behind a boulder, the rear of which is very similar to that of a hippopotamus. The part is not original, but it already appears on the copy. It is possible that during the reconstruction there was an ambiguity as to whether the part in question was a rock or an animal, which was then solved in the form of a both-and-also.
At the bottom left you can see a striped hyena with the inscription ΚΡΟΚΟΤΤΑϹ (KROCOTTAS) , a name that Agatharchides used to describe the hyena. However, the stripes are horizontal instead of correctly vertical. A dromedary can be seen on the right. The label calls it ΝΑΒΟΥϹ (NABOUS) . Pliny writes that nabun is the Ethiopian name of the giraffe . Since the giraffe ( Greek καμηλοπάρδαλις kamelopardalis ) was thought to be a cross between a camel and a panther ( leopard ), the giraffe and dromedary were easily confused.
The segment was badly damaged. On the top of the rock there were probably two birds whose feet can still be seen on the Dal Pozzo copy. To the right of the rock there may have been an elephant, the outline of which and a tusk can be seen on the Dal Pozzo copy.
Segment 4
In the current arrangement, the small segment connects to segment 2 at the bottom left . It shows two otters, the left one has a caught fish in its mouth, the right one has already choked off its catch halfway. Possible species are the Eurasian otter ( Lutra lutra ) or, as a species typical of Ethiopia, the spotted otter ( Lutra maculicollis ). There is a badly legible label above the two otters ( ΕΝΥΔΡΙϹ ENYDRIS "water animal").
Two turtles sit on a rock below the otters.
Segment 5
The segment shows two giraffes, the rear one being hidden by the front one so that only their neck and feet can be seen. The neck of the giraffe in front is stretched, as if it was plucking leaves from a tree that is only hinted at on the copy. The rear giraffe, whose front legs and neck can be seen on the copy, seems to be eating grass off the ground. Below the giraffes is the inscription Κ.ΜΕΛΟΠΑΡΑΑΔΙ , originally probably ΚΑΜΕΛΟΠΑΡΔΑΛΙϹ , that is camelopardalis , the usual Greek name of the giraffe already mentioned in the description of segment 3 .
The giraffe, which lives in southern Sudan, had already come to ancient Egypt as a Nubian tribute, but it only became known to the ancient world when it was shown as one of the exotic Ethiopian animals in the aforementioned pomp procession of Ptolemy II. The oldest known illustration of a giraffe shows a frieze from the 3rd century BC. In the necropolis of Marissa in Palestine. The Romans first got them at the Caesar Games in 46 BC. To see.
Below the giraffe you can see a small animal lying on its back. It is uncertain whether the animal has a tail. A relatively long tail can be seen on the copy. In the report on the restoration, the original presence of a tail remains open. It remains unclear which animal species should be represented. It has been suggested that the animal should be interpreted not as lying on its back, but as a chameleon hanging from a branch . Other suggestions were hyrax , a type of hedgehog, e.g. B. the Ethiopian hedgehog ( Paraechinus aethiopicus ), or a shrew . Another possibility is the Myrmekoleon , the ant-lion, a fabulous animal of unclear size and composition, also settled by Agatharchides in Ethiopia.
Segment 6
literature
- Bernard Andreae : Nile landscapes. In: ders .: Antique picture mosaics. Zabern, Mainz 2003, pp. 78–109 (with bibliography of older literature)
- Salvatore Aurigemma : Il restauro del Mosaico Barberini, condotto nel 1952. In: Atti della Pontificia accademia romana di archeologia. Rendiconti 30-31, 1957-59, pp. 41-98.
- Giorgio Gullini : I mosaici di Palestrina. (= Archeologia classica Supplemento 1). Istituto di Archeologia ed Etruscologia, Rome 1956.
- Ragnar Kinzelbach: The Nile mosaic from Praeneste as a biogeographical document . In: Ancient Science and Their Reception 23, 2013, pp. 139–191.
- Paul GP Meyboom: The Nile mosaic of Palestrina. Early evidence of Egyptian religion in Italy. Brill, Leiden u. a. 1995, ISBN 90-04-10137-3 (= Religions in the Graeco-Roman world Vol. 121) ( Google Books ).
- Eva Schmidt: Studies on the Barberine mosaic in Palestrina. Heitz, Strasbourg 1929.
- Angela Steinmeyer-Schareika: The Nile mosaic from Palestrina and a Ptolemaic expedition to Ethiopia. Habelt, Bonn 1978, ISBN 3-7749-1413-3 .
- Miguel John Versluys: Aegyptiaca Romana. Nilotic scenes and the Roman views of Egypt. Religions in the Graeco-Roman world vol. 144. Brill, Leiden et al. 2002, ISBN 90-04-12440-3 .
- Helen Whitehouse: The Dal Pozzo Copies of the Palestrina Mosaic. (= British Archaeological Reports Supplementary Series 12). Oxford 1976, ISBN 0-904531-48-1 .
Web links
Individual evidence
A brief reference is made to the titles given in the literature list.
- ↑ segment with the pergola (No. 19); 0.95 x 1.02 m. Berlin, Antikensammlung Inv. Mos. 3.
- ↑ For the following argument, see Meyboom: Nile Mosaic. Chapter II, pp. 8-19.
- ↑ Orazio Marucchi: Nuove osservazione sul mosaico di Palestrina. In: Bullettino della Commissione archeologica comunale di Roma. 23, 1895, pp. 26-38 ( digitized version ).
- ↑ Cicero: De divinations. 2, 41 (85-87).
- ↑ Pliny the Elder: Naturalis historia. 36 64, 189.
- ↑ Richard Delbrueck: Hellenistic buildings in Latium. 2 volumes. Trübner, Strasbourg 1907/1912.
- ^ Antica descrizione del Vescovado di Palestrina (not preserved).
- ↑ The Barberini coat of arms was originally inserted to the right and left above the mosaic. These were removed in 1953 and the incisions in the semicircular arc filled.
- ↑ Joseph Maria Suaresius: Praenestes antiquae libri duo. Palestrina 1640 u. 1655 ( digitized version ).
- ↑ inventory numbers from 19,201 to 19,219 the Royal Collection, Windsor Castle; Whitehouse 1976.
- ↑ Pliny, Naturalis historia 8, 14, 36.
- ^ Claudius Aelianus: De natura animalium 2, 21.
- ↑ Brehm's Thierleben. Volume 7: Creeping animals and amphibians. 2nd Edition. Verlag des Bibliographisches Institut, Leipzig 1883, p. 331; see Meyboom note III 12, p. 225.
- ↑ Wolf-Eberhard Engelmann, Fritz Jürgen Obst : With a forked tongue - biology and cultural history of the snake. Herder, Freiburg 1981, ISBN 3-451-19393-0 , p. 57 and 116.
- ^ Diodor: Libraries. 3, 36-37.
- ^ Schmid: Studies. P. 28.
- ↑ Meyboom p. 21, there note 4
- ↑ Pliny: Naturalis historia 33, 110.
- ^ Diodor : Libraries. 3, 39, 8-9.
- ↑ Meyboom, pp. 111-114.
- ^ Claudius Aelianus: De natura animalium. 2, 9.
- ^ Physiologus 13.
- ↑ Meyboom note III 9, p. 224.
- ^ Oppian: Kynegetika. 3; 336ff; Venice, Cod. Ven. Marcianus Gr. Z 479, fol. 48v u. 49v.
- ↑ Meyboom Appendix 2, pp. 115-118.
- ^ Diodor: Libraries. 3, 8.
- ^ Oppian: Kynegetika. 1, 321.
- ^ Diodor: Libraries. 3, 35, 6.
- ↑ Naturalis historia. 8, 28.
- ↑ a b Aristotle Historia animalium 2, 8.
- ^ Strabo: Geographika. 15, 699.
- ^ Aristotle De generatione animalium. 4, 3.
- ↑ Diodor Library 3, 35, 4.
- ↑ Meyboom p. 228 Note III 22.
- ↑ In Diodor: ( Libraries. 3, 35, 7–9), however, this is shown as fire red and armed with horns. Strabo ( Geographika. 16, 4, 16) also describes the carnivorous bull as reddish.
- ↑ Athenaios: Deipnosophistai. 5.201b.
- ↑ Meyboom p. 231 Note III 35.
- ^ Strabo Geographika. 16, 4, 16.
- ↑ Pliny the Elder Naturalis historia 8.69
- ↑ Horace : Epistulae. 2, 1, 195: diversum confusa genus panthera camelo .
- ↑ Meyboom p. 230 note III 29 and 32.
- ^ Frieze in grave A. Illustrations in: John P. Peters, Hermann Thiersch : Painted Tombs in the Necropolis of Marissa. London 1905 ( digitized ).
- ↑ Pliny the Elder: Naturalis historia. 8, 27.
- ↑ Aurigemma Fig. 44
- ↑ Kathleen M. Coleman : The upside-down animal at Palestrina. In: Archäologischer Anzeiger. 1994, pp. 255-260.
- ↑ Pliny tells of the hedgehog that he collects apples by rolling on his back over apples lying on the ground and thus impaling them with his thorns ( Naturalis historia. 8, 56).
- ↑ Meyboom p. 233f. Note III 46.
- ↑ See Meyboom p. 127f. App. 6 and George Claridge Druce: An account of the Μυρμηκολέων or Ant-lion. In: The Antiquaries Journal. Vol. 3, No. 4, October 1923, pp. 347-364 ( PDF; 1.2 MB) .