Osage
The Osage ([ ˈoʊseɪdʒ ] or [ oʊˈseɪdʒ ]) are a North American Indian tribe from the Dhegiha branch of the Sioux language family . The Osage themselves originally called themselves Ni-u-kon-ska ("people of the middle waters"), from the late 17th century they called themselves Wah-zha-zhe or Wa-sha-she (both English transcription ). This means "people of the water" and was the name of their original tribe, which was dominant in their mythology and tribal history. Later other linguistically and culturally related tribes joined the Wah-zha-zhe and developed into the Osage.
The tribal name commonly used today as Osage developed through the adaptation of the spelling and pronunciation of the name Wa-sha-she by the French settlers and the British . The French wrote the first syllable Oua and the full name as Ouasage . The British and Americans, in turn, wrote to Osage . They pronounced the name very differently: the first syllable without [ a ] and the second syllable with the diphthong [ eɪ ], followed by the consonant [ dʒ ].
Residential area and history
Like the other members of this subgroup ( Omaha , Ponca , Kansa, and Quapaw ), the Osage migrated westward from the Atlantic coast , having previously lived on the Piedmont Plateau between the James and Savannah Rivers in Virginia , North, and South Carolina . They later moved down the Ohio River , across the Mississippi to the Ozark Plateau and into the prairies of what is now western Missouri . At this point the five tribes separated; the Osage stayed in villages on the Osage River , where they lived in 1673, according to Jacques Marquette . In 1802, according to Lewis and Clark , they lived on the Osage River, the Little Osage River upstream, and the Vermilion River , a tributary of the Arkansas River . The extent of their tribal area was vast, spanning large parts of what are now four states: Missouri, Kansas , Oklahoma, and Arkansas . The area was about 200,000 km², which is more than half the area of Germany (about 350,000 km²). The Osage called their country 'the center of the earth' because of its central location and fertility and saw themselves as the keepers of this land in the name of Wa-kon-ta-ke (The Mysterious Being of the Universe). At that time the tribe had 5,500 members. They lived there until the early 19th century when they ceded their Missouri land to the United States and moved west to the Neosho River Valley in Kansas. Here the Osage became known for their rejection of white culture; they continued to dress in animal skins and allegedly refused to drink alcohol.
After the end of the American Civil War (1861–1865), increasing pressure on the US government to open all Indian land to white settlement led to the sale of the Kansas reservation . The proceeds were used in 1870 to buy land for the Osage in Indian territory . The discovery of oil on the Osage reservation in the late 19th century and an agreement with the United States government that all mining rights on the reservation should go to the tribe (leases were distributed on a per capita basis) made the Osage one Very wealthy Indian tribe at the beginning of the 20th century. Today they number about 10,000 tribe members and live on a reservation in northern Oklahoma, Osage County .
The ballet tradition founded by the two internationally known prima ballerinas Maria and Marjorie Tallchief is still very important to the Osage.
Culture
The Osage belonged culturally to the semi-sedentary prairie Indians with the characteristic combination of village farming and buffalo hunting . Other important hunting animals were deer , bears and beavers . Their villages consisted of longhouses covered with mats and skins, erected irregularly around an open space that was used for dances and council meetings. During the hunting season, the Osage lived mostly in grass and bush huts (so-called wickiups ), and only when they went buffalo hunting in the plains, in tipis . The Osage went on three large, well-organized hunts every year - buffalo hunts in spring and autumn and wild animals (deer, antelopes , beavers) in winter . The focus of tribal life of the Osage were religious ceremonies in which clans were divided into symbolic heaven and earth groups, the latter again being divided into dry land and water. The Osage were known for their poetic rituals . They had a custom of telling every newborn child the legend of the creation of the universe .
Social and political organization
Social organization in moieties, phratries and clans
There are various oral accounts of the emergence of the social and political organization of the Osage (depending on the clan membership); however, in mythology and tribal history, the Wa-sha-she / Wa-zha-zhe / Wah-sha-she were always the dominant clan of the Osage.
The Osage consisted of five (according to a dissenting opinion, four) phratries or clan associations / subdivisions: the Wa-sha-she / Wa-zha-zhe / Wah-sha-she ("water people"), the Tsi- shu (Tsi-zhu) ("Heavenly People"), the Hun-ka (Hon-ga) ("Earth People", also "Holy People"), the Isolated Hun-ka (Hon-ga) or Hun- ka U-tah-nun-ts (Hon-ga U-ta-non-dsi) ("Isolated Earth People") and the Tsi-ha-she (Tsi-hai-shi) ("Those who came last" )
According to the Osage tradition, the Ne-ke-a-Shin-ka (Society of Little Old Men or Society of Little Ancient Men) grouped the clan associations into two large moieties (French "half") or "Grand Divisions" - den Tsi-shu (Tsi-zhu) ("Heavenly People") and the Hun-ka (Hong-ga) ("Earth People", also "Holy People"), which represent the duality of Heaven (symbolized peace ) and earth (the "dry land" belonged to the earth as well as the "water", symbolized the war ). Thus it can also be explained that the Tsi-shu (Tsi-zhu) Grand Division generally included the following phratria (clan associations / subdivisions), the Tsi-shu (Tsi-zhu) ("Heavenly People") and the Tsi -ha-she (Tsi-hai-shi) ("Those who came last"); to the Hun-ka (Hong-ga) Grand Division, however, generally the Hun-ka (Hon-ga) ("earth people", also "holy people"), the Wa-sha-she / Wa-zha-zhe / Wah -sha-she ("water people") as well as the Isolated Hun-ka (Hon-ga) or Hun-ka U-tah-nun-ts (Hon-ga U-ta-non-dsi) ("Isolated Earth- People").
According to the dominant tradition, at first there was only the Was-sha-she / Wah-sha-she , later three (or four) other clan associations were added.
Another tradition reports that Wakonda ("the great, inexplicable secret") commissioned the Wa-sha-she / Wah-sha-she and Tsi-shu (Tsi-zhu) to track down the Hun-ka (Hon-ga) and to teach them the right social behavior and culture in order to be able to integrate them into the tribal association as "Osage" tribal members (by adopting the traditional behavioral norms, the Hun-ka (Hon-ga) were no longer strangers). Later the Hun-ka U-tah-nun-ts (Hon-ga U-ta-non-dsi) and finally the Tsi-ha-she (Tsi-hai-shi) would have joined them, so that now these five ( According to the dominant tradition, four) clan associations formed the "Osage" nation.
There were once only 14 clans among the Osage, half of whom were Wa-sha-she / Wa-zha-zhe / Wah-sha-she and half of Hun-ka (Hon-ga) or Tsi-shu (Tsi- zhu) ) and formed the first 14 fire places. However, with the accession of the Tsi-shu (Tsi-zhu) (or Hun-ka (Hon-ga) ) the number of clans increased to 21, so that the symbolic order and the balance between "heaven" and "earth" was no longer observed; the "sky moiety" would now only be represented by seven clans, while the "earth moiety" would be given a preponderance by 14 clans. Therefore, the Osage agreed that the Hun-ka (Hon-ga) ("earth people") only by means of five clans and the Wa-sha-she / Wa-zha-zhe / Wah-sha-she ("water -Volk ") were only represented by two clans and the Tsi-shu (Tsi-zhu (" heaven-people ") were allowed to keep their seven clans (thus symbolically the original number of 14 clans was reached again) the Isolated Hun-ka (Hon-ga) / Hun-ka U-tah-nun-ts (Hon-ga U-ta-non-dsi) (which were represented by a so-called clan "C") and finally the Tsi -ha-she (Tsi-hai-shi) (represented by two clans, often referred to as clan "A" and "B"). Each clan also had at least two subclans (some had up to five), One of them always served as a Sho-ka (ceremonial clan messenger) - so that there were at least 55 clans. Each subclan also had its own name and possessed a totem - and each had special ceremonial tasks to perform.
All members of a moiety, (and their respective clans) descended from a common ancestor mythical (or a sacred animal) and therefore formed a lineage ( lineage ). Each Osage belonged to one of the two moieties, the membership of which was hereditary and unchangeable (it could not be changed even by marriage) - whereby the moiety membership was derived from the moiety of the father ( patrilinear ). Since the Osage were not allowed to marry a member of their own moiety ( exogamy ), they had to choose their potential marriage partner from the other moiety, so that Tsi-shu (Tsi-zhu) could only marry Hun-ka (Hon-ga) and hun- ka (Hon-ga) had to choose from among the Tsi-shu (Tsi-zhu) (thus the Osage complemented the tribal organization based on duality by means of marriage and integrated it into a unit). This exogamous system strengthened the unity (in spite of the many clans) within the Osage, since both moities (halves) of the tribe were connected to each other by marriage.
Structure of the Grand Divisions
Hun-ka (Hon-ga) Grand Division ("people of the dry land, earth people", represented the war ):
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Wa-sha-she / Wa-zha-zhe / Wah-sha-she Subdivision ("water people", original tribe and namesake of the Osage, seven clans)
- Wa-zha-zhe cha (White Wa-zha-zhe cha)
- Ke-k'in (Carrier of the Turtle People)
- Mi-ke-the-stse-dse (Cattail People)
- Pon-ka Wa-shta-ge (Gentle Ponca) or Wa-tse-tsi (Star That Came to Earth People)
- O-cu-ga-xe (They Who Make Clear the Way)
- Ta-tha-xin (Deer's Lungs People)
- Ho I-ni-ka-shi-ga (Fish People)
-
Hun-ka (Hon-ga) Subdivision ("people of the dry land, earth people", seven clans)
- Wa-ca-be-ton (They Who Own the Black Bear)
- In-gthon-ga (Puma People)
- O-pxon (Elk People)
- Mon-in-ka-ga-xe (Maker of the Earth People)
- Hon-ga Gthe-zhe (The Mottled Earth People)
- Hon-ga Zhin-ga (The Little Earth People)
- Xu-tha (Eagle People)
- Isolated Hun-ka (Hon-ga) or Hun-ka U-tah-nun-ts (Hon-ga U-ta-non-dsi) subdivision ("Isolated Earth People", according to other tradition they only formed a clan and no own phratry / subdivision and belonged directly to the Hun-ka Grand Division, often referred to as clan “C”, only had subclans).
Tsi-shu (Tsi-zhu) Grand Division ("Heavenly People", represented peace ):
-
Tsi-shu (Tsi-zhu) Subdivision (seven clans)
- Tsi-zhu Wa-non (Elder Tsi-zhu) or Wa-kon-da Non-pa-bi (The God Who is Feard by All)
- Tsi-zhu Wa-shta-ge (Gentle Tsi-zhu) or Pe-ton Ton-ga Zho-i-ga-the (Great Crane People)
- Tsi-zhu U-thu-ha-ge (The Last Tsi-zhu)
- Cin-dse-A-gthe (Wearers of the Symbolic Locks)
- Tse-do-ga In-dse (Buffalo Bull Face People)
- Mi-kin Wa-non (Carriers of the Sun and Moon)
- Hon Zho-i-ga-the (Night People)
-
Tsi-ha-she (Tsi-hai-shi) subdivision ("Those who came last" had two clans, which are often referred to as clan "A" and "B", which in turn were divided)
- Ni-ka Wa-kon-da-gi (Men of Mystery)
- Tho-xe (Buffalo Bull People)
Political organization in bands
In addition to the social structure based on the clans and moieties, the Osage also had a political organization: the individual bands ( English " tribal groups ").
According to the Osage tradition, they were once caught by a flood (believed to be the Ohio River ) east of the Mississippi River , and the clans were dispersed in search of safety. Those who stayed and survived on small, flat hills in the floodplain were called Heart Stays People . Some clans climbed trees to save themselves and were therefore called tree sitters (those who sit on trees). A third group found shelter in a depression on a nearby hill and was called Down Under People . The first two groups and about half of the third group left the remaining Osage and were soon called Utsehta (Little Bone Osage). A fifth group of clans took refuge in a side valley rich in thorns and overgrown with thick thickets and were called Thorny Bush People . The sixth and final group managed to climb a wooded hill - these were called the Upland Forest People . The Thorny Bush People, Upland Forest People, and the rest of the Down Under People were also commonly known as the Big Hills People or Pahatsi (Big Bone Osage).
Bone was later omitted, so that the well-known names Little Osage and Big Osage became common. The Little Osage (lived along the Missouri River and its tributaries) had a closer relationship with the Missouri and Illinois than the other groups, the Big Osage (lived along the Osage River , the Little Osage River and their tributaries) in turn maintained close Connections with the Quapaw . The population of the Big Osage at the time was about double that of the Little Osage. Since almost all Kon za clan members were Big Osage, it is possible that the majority of the Kon za of the Little Osage broke away from them and from now on formed an independent people as Kansa (Kon za, Kaw). Around 1802 a third group, the Santsukhdhi (mostly called Arkansas Band ), as Tracks Far Away II (Ka-she-Se-gra), the Grand Hun-ka Chief at that time, almost half of the Big Osage to the Arkansas River led. This group also settled along the Vermilion River, Neosho River , Grand River and Verdigris River .
At the end of the 18th century, for example, there were three major geographical groupings - the Little Osage, the Big Osage and the Arkansas Band. Each of these groups had in turn developed its own guided tours - a chief chief is booked for the Little Osage. In each of these three groups all 24 clans (and their subclans) were represented and each band (group) consisted of two or more clans.
Military organization
Grand Hun-ka and Grand Tsi-shu Chief
In addition to the organization of the Osage in moities (Grand Divisions) and phratries (associations or subdivisions), the Ne-ke-a-shin-ka ( Society of Little Old Men or Society of Little Ancient Men ) established a hereditary line from the respective Peacemaker- Clan (of the clan that was responsible for maintaining the peace outside and inside) of the two Grand Divisions - so that there was a Grand Tsi-shu Chief and a Grand Hun-ka Chief . Since the Grand Tsi-shu Chief of the Tsi-shu (Heavenly People) Grand Division was responsible for peace, the Grand Hun-ka Chief was responsible for the war and the hunt (in both cases people were killed) of the Hun-ka (Earth People) Grand Division. Although the two Grand Chiefs theoretically had the same amount of power (or rather had to be responsible), the Grand Tsi-shu Chief dominated everyday life, as he, as the spokesman for the Ne-ke-a-shin-ka towards neighboring peoples and later the Spaniards, French and Americans performed. In addition to the hereditary line ( lineage ) of the Grand Chiefs, who in a sense represented the executive and judicial branches of the Osage Society (severely limited and limited in their power by the legislature, the Society of Old Men - who did the ceremonies, legends, religious and shamanic rituals of the Osage) there were also the leaders of the individual bands (tribal groups). They owed their authority and power only to the agreement and trust of the members of their group in their leadership qualities and were responsible to them. In terms of authority and the power derived from it, however, the individual band chiefs ( chiefs ) did not come close to the Grand Tsi-shu or Grand Hun-ka chiefs.
Ah-ki-ta (also Ah-ke-ta)
In addition to the Ki-he-ka ( chiefs ) there were also different classes of Ah-ki-ta ("protector-keeper", English protectors , often also soldiers ). In order to help the two Grand Chiefs in the implementation of their tasks and duties, each Grand Chief was authorized to appoint five helpers, the so-called Ki-he-ka Ah-ke-ta (Chief Protectors). These Ah-ki-ta had to be chosen by all ten clans, whereby the Grand Chiefs were not obliged to necessarily choose Ah-ke-ta from the clans of their own Grand Division.
The Ah-ke-ta had to be chosen from the following clans:
- Hun-ka Grand Division: Wa-sop-pe Black Bear / Panther or In-gthon-ga (Puma People), Little Male Deer, O-pxon (Elk People), Hun-ka Ah-hu-tun (Hun-ka Having Wings), Hon-ga U-ta-non-dsi (Isolated Hun-ka-Isolated Earth People)
- Tsi-shu Grand Division: Ni-ka Wa-kon-da-gi (Men of Mystery), Tho-xe (Buffalo Bull People), Tsi-zhu Wa-non (Elder Tzi-shu), Mi-kin Wa-non (Carriers of the Sun and Moon or Elder Sun Carriers), Tse-do-ga In-dse (Buffalo Bull Face People)
The five Ki-he-ka Ah-ke-ta of a Grand Division formed a council when a Grand Chief had died, or was no longer able to hold office, to elect a new Grand Chief, taking into account his origin as well his qualification.
In addition to the Ki-he-ka Ah-ke-ta, there were two other classes of Ah-ke-ta. During the war and on the hunt, the responsibility for the attack or for the start of the hunt was carried out by the Wa-na-she (Director of the Attack) and his assistants, the Wa-na-she Shin-ka (Little Protectors-Little Soldiers) . The other class of Ah-ke-ta was particularly important in the relationship of the Osage to neighboring tribes and later the European soldiers and settlers, because they had the task of protecting the tribal area from enemy attacks or incursions. These Moh-shon Ah-ke-ta (Protectors of the Land) had to either kill or chase a member of a hostile people who went hunting in Osage Land or who traveled with hostile intentions. When the Mo-shon Ah-ke-ta had killed the enemy, they beheaded them and put their heads on poles - as a deterrent to further intruders. Spanish reports estimate the Indian and white enemies killed by the Osage at over a thousand. During the American period alone, when the Cherokee were expelled from the east, nearly 1,000 of these Cherokee died by the Osage when they tried to settle in parts of their tribal areas.
But if neighboring tribes or whites were threatened with starvation and asked for permission to hunt in the Osage tribal area, the Osage almost always allowed this - and no one was injured or mistreated. The Wichita , traditional enemies who suffered from a great famine during the American Civil War , asked the Osage for permission to hunt in their areas. The Wichita were allowed to hunt in the Osage area until the famine was over and then had to return to their own hunting grounds - after which the armed conflict between the Wichita and Osage began again.
Grand War Party and Small Party
According to the traditions of the Osage, the Wa-sha-she, Hun-ka, Isolated Hun-ka and the Tsi-shu formed the so-called Grand War Party (also: War Party in Great Numbers ), which consisted of warriors from all three phratries (Associations) had to exist and was therefore connected with lengthy ceremonies, between seven and up to fourteen days, and meetings in order to organize them for the war. The Tsi-ha-she brought the Osage the organization of the so-called Small War Party , which enabled the Osage to go into battle faster, which in turn can be divided into three classes:
- Small parties - first class: consisted of warriors from one moity or one grand division
- Small parties - second class: consisted of at least two clans of a grand division
- Small parties - the third grade: consisted of warriors belonging to a clan
Warfare
The three bands of the Osage - the Utsehta (Little Osage) , the Pahatsi (Big Osage or Great Osage) and the Santsukhdhi (Arkansas Band) - had different ways of waging wars and conflicts:
The Little Osage owned three war clans: Mottled Eagle, Men of Mystery, and Buffalo Bull People . These were second class war clans, so the Little Osage favored psychological warfare by systematically carrying out frightening raids on enemy tribes and European settlements and harassing them as often as possible. The Big Osage also mostly had second-class war clans as well as two division chiefs whose duty it was to keep the peace, so that they, like the Little Osage, mostly chose the method of small, grueling pinpricks.
The Arkansas Band had some second-class war clans, but the majority were members of the related (sometimes considered one clan) Black Bear and Panther (Puma People) clans, the leading war clans among the Osage. They were therefore particularly aggressive towards enemies and usually preferred killing to the constant harassment of the enemy in armed conflicts. Within the Arkansas Band, the particularly flexible and quick to organize (since their warriors only had to belong to one clan) small parties of the third class dominated the clashes with the tribes of the Southern Plains, Spaniards and later Americans.
The Osage also had two types of warfare against their Indian enemies (and later the Europeans) - depending on the opponent and the aim of the enterprise.
On the one hand, there were the so-called bluff wars (roughly "faked wars"), which were mostly waged against the semi-sedentary arable prairie tribes of the Caddo-speaking Pawnee , Caddo and Wichita . The Caddo, which are mostly well protected behind their palisade villages, had to be incited by gestures, abuse, attacks on hunting parties or horse theft so that they left their villages and fought. In the ensuing battle, mostly the Osage triumphed, beheaded the killed enemies and sold the captured warriors, women and children to the Muskogee and other tribes in the southeast. It was customary to paint the upper half of the face either black or red (depending on the Grand Division from) and the lower half yellow.
On its western, southwestern and southern flank of the Osage usually armed conflicts with were nomadic hunter-gatherers living Plains tribes of the Comanche , Kiowa , Plains Apache (Kiowa Apache) , Lipan Apache , Tonkawa , Southern Cheyenne and Southern Arapaho to exist. These were peoples who, like the Osage, had a warlike tradition and did not grant their opponents mercy in battle (especially Comanche, Kiowa and Apache). In battles against the tribes mentioned, the Osage painted their entire bodies black - as a sign that there would be no chance of leniency and that there would be total war. Most of the time the Arkansas Band led the way in these fights.
Symbolism of war
The four symbolic knives
The Black Bear Clan was originally the keeper of the four knives, the Moh-he-Se-e-pa-blo-ka (Round Handled Knife) : Moh-he-Sop-pe (Black Knife) , Moh-he-Hun- ka (Sacred Knife) and Moh-he-Shu-tsy (Red Knife) . These knives first became the Wa-sha-she, Hun-ka, Isolated Hun-ka, and Tsi-shu. After the Tsi-ha-she merged with the Osage, the knives were redistributed: The Hun-ka subdivision was given responsibility for the first two knives, the Wa-sha-she subdivision and the Tsi subdivision for the last two knives. shu Grand Division (Tsi-shu and Tsi-ha-she).
If an Osage warrior now severed the head of an enemy with a knife, at that moment it was transformed into one of the four symbolic knives (based on the subdivision to which the warrior belonged), so that the warriors count this as an honorable act of war could.
The seven mystical arrows
According to a lore of the Black Bear Clan, the Tsi-shu were initially unable to wage war because they did not have enough weapons. The Wa-sha-she, on the other hand, had a good supply of weapons, especially arrows, which they now handed over to the Tsi-shu. Now they could wage war against the foreign (= hostile) people (they were probably Cherokee) and defeat them with the help of the mystical seven arrows . Another version reports that the Elder Wa-sha-she clan of the Wa-sha-she subdivision transferred the authority and power to organize war parties to the Hun-ka clan of the Hun-ka subdivision. A subclan of the Hun-ka clan found the enemy, and the entire Osage tribe began their martial tradition. At that time, the Elder Wa-sha-she also offered the Hun-ka their seven mystical arrows, which enabled the Osage to prevent their enemies from resisting. In these two versions, either the Tsi-shu or the Hun-ka receive the seven mystical arrows from the Wa-sha-she - depending on the clan that was telling the story (each of the 24 clans had its own version, in which this im best light there).
In all early legends (regardless of which clan told them) the Was-sha-she always represent the mother group or the original tribe and often the last solution to a problem. In later accounts, the Tsi-shu became the dominant group. The Wa-sha-she, Tsi-shu and the Tsi-ha-she tended more towards peace than the Hun-ka and Isolated Hun-ka. This does not mean that they were not at war - they just preferred the diplomatic solution to the warlike one. However, the Hun-ka and Isolated Hun-ka mostly chose war to solve their problems.
literature
- Raymond J. DeMallie (Ed.): Handbook of North American Indians . Vol. 13 Plains, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC 2001, ISBN 0-16-050400-7
- Willard Hughes Rollings: Unaffected by the Gospel: Osage Resistance to the Christian Invasion 1673-1906: A Cultural Victory , University of New Mexico Press 2004, ISBN 978-0-8263-3557-9
- Willard Hughes Rollings: The Osage: An Ethnohistorical Study of Hegemony on the Prairie-Plains , University of Missouri Press 1995, ISBN 978-0-8262-1006-7
- Louis F. Burns: A History of The Osage People , University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, 2004, ISBN 978-0-8173-5018-5
- Louis F. Burns: Osage Indian Customs and Myths , Fire Ant Books, 1st edition 2005, ISBN 978-0-8173-5181-6
- Gene Weltfish: The Lost Universe: Pawnee Life and Culture , University of Nebraska Press 1990, ISBN 978-0-8032-5871-6
- David Grann: Killers of the Flower Moon. Oil, Money, Murder and the Birth of the FBI , Simon and Schuster, 2017.
Web links
- Osage website .
- The Osage Creation Story ( Memento from October 7, 2009 in the Internet Archive ).
Individual evidence
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↑ The pronunciation with an emphasis on the first syllable can be heard at dictionary.com and yourdictionary.com (click on the loudspeaker symbol). Likewise in this video , e.g. B. at 0:05 and 0:13.
The pronunciation with an emphasis on the second syllable can be heard at Merriam-Webster (click on the loudspeaker symbol). Likewise in this video , e.g. B. at 0:16 and 0:21. - ↑ See The Osage: A Historical Sketch By The Editors American Native Press Archives and Sequoyah Research Center
- ↑ Jack Anderson: Maria Tallchief, a Dazzling Ballerina and Muse for Balanchine, Dies at 88 , New York Times. April 12, 2013. Accessed April 13, 2013.
- ↑ Legends visittheosage.com, see Maria Tallchief and Marjorie Tallchief .
- ^ A b Willard H. Rollings: The Osage. An Ethnohistorical Study of Hegemony on the Prairie-Plains. University of Missouri Press, 1992, p. 23: Osage Lifeways .
- ↑ Louis F. Burns: Osage Indian Bands and Clans, pp. 29-42, ISBN 978-0-8063-5112-4