Tohono O'Odham

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Reserves of the Tohono O'Odham and neighboring tribes in the American Southwest
Tohono O'Odham family in front of their branch house; Tohono O'Odham Nation, Arizona

Today's Tohono O'Odham Nation consists of the descendants of two linguistically related, but culturally different, Native American tribal groups who once lived in the Sonoran Desert in southwest Arizona , USA , and northwest Sonora , Mexico - officially known at the federal level as tribe recognized Tohono O'Odham (Papago) ( "people of the desert"), and the only part of the Tohono O'Odham nation recognized Hia C-ed O'Odham (sand Papago / Pima sand) ( "people of sand dunes").

Both tribes are (were) often summarized under the colonial (in Spanish as Pápago and in historical texts still common) - today rejected by them - designation Papago and form one of the two great main cultural groups of the O'Odham or Pima Alto (Upper Pima ) , the geographical collective name of all Pima (Pimic) -language groups north of the Río Sonora ; the second main group is formed by the tribes called Pima (some no longer exist today) the Akimel O'Odham (“river people”), the Koahadk (Qáhatika) , the Sobaipuri (so: bai-puri - “many enemies / large ones hostile people "), Soba (Soba Pimas) (S-O'obmakam -" Apache-like people "), the Himeris (Ímuris) (" plateau between rivers "or" like flint-shaped hills ") as well as the actual. Pima (Piatos) (a contraction of Pimas Altos ).

Their closest cultural and linguistic relatives are the Pimic-speaking tribes who live further south in northern Mexico - and are therefore known as Pima Bajo (Lower Pima) , as well as the Tepehuán and Tepecano .

Naming

The Pima themselves had never referred to themselves as Pima, the various Pima groups simply referred to themselves as Au-Authm , O'Odham , O'Ob , Odami or Dami , depending on the dialect , which simply means “people”.

The river valleys and adjacent areas from Santa Ana in the north of Sonora to the Gila River in the south of Arizona were generally known to the Spaniards as Pimería Alta and the groups living here were therefore known as Pima Alto , the west and south bordering desert areas and mountains to the coast of the Gulf of California as Gran Desierto de Altar ("Western Papaguería") or Papaguería ("Eastern Papaguería") and the Pima living here as Areneños ( Pápagos de la Arena - "Sand Pápago") or Pápago , the river valleys and mountains in the south Sonoras and in the north of Durango and Chihuahuas as Pimería Baja and the groups living here as Pima Bajo and those living south in the adjacent areas in the south of Durango, in the north of Sinaloa, Jalisco and Nayarit as Tepehuanes or as Nayarites .

The word Pima probably derives from a dialect of the Pima Bajo. When the first Spaniards asked the Pima a question, they could only answer them: pi-myi-match / pi 'añi mac / pi mac ("I don't know"), pi-ma-te ("I don't understand") or pi ha'icu ("nothing"), from which the Spaniards shortened Pima .

The current name Tohono O'Odham ("people of the desert") is the self-designation of the groups previously commonly referred to as Papago , which in turn is a Spanish adaptation of an O'Odham word; with Babawï O'Odham or Pahpah Au-Authm (" Tepary bean people") or Ba: bawĭkoʼa (" Tepary bean eater") the neighboring Akimel O'Odham referred to their relatives. However, some historians claim that the warlike opata, hostile to the O'Odham , contemptuously referred to them as Papawi O'Otham . The name Opata itself is in turn a modification of the O'Odham words Ohp or O'Ob ("enemies") or Obagg'ata ("to have an enemy").

The groups formerly known as Sand Papago / Sand Pima - and therefore often incorrectly regarded as a subgroup of today's Tohono O'Odham (formerly called Papago) - were only officially re-named as Hia C-eḍ O'Odham (" People of the sand dunes ”); from neighboring O'Odham groups also as Hia Tadk Ku: mdam ("Sand Root Crushers"), Hiá Tatk Kuá'adam ("Sand Root Eaters") or Otomkal Kuá'adam (" Desert Iguana Eaters") or because of theirs nomadic lifestyle in contrast to the mostly sedentary O'Odham also called S-O'obmakam (" enemy (Apache) - similar people"). A band of the Hia C-eḍ O'Odham in the Tinajas Altas Mountains ( Uʼuva: k - "where the arrowhead sank" or Uʼuv Oopad - "where the arrows were put down") was simply named after this by the Tohono O'Odham Mountain range called U'uva: k or Uʼuv Oopad ("Inhabitants of the Tinajas Altas Mountains").

The (later) most powerful enemies of the Pima Alto and Pápago , the various groups of the Apache (Nnēē or T'Inde) , referred to them as Sáíkiné ("people of the sand house") because they lived in stilt houses made of adobe (adobe) or as Ketl'ah izláhé ("straps-under-the-feet-people"), because they wore sandals in return for the Apache .

language

Both tribes speak a variety of the so-called Pápago dialect group of O'Odham (Pima-Papago) or O'odham ñiok ( O'odham ha-ñeʼokĭ or O'odham ñiʼokĭ ), one of the four main languages ​​of Pima (Pimic) or Tepiman , a group of closely related languages ​​belonging to the southern branch of the Uto-Aztec language family ; the Pápago dialect group is divided into several dialects (Campbell 1997):

Tohono O'Odham or Pápago variety

  • Cukuḍ Kuk or (co) Kolo'di dialect (also: Kokololoti , descendants of . Eigentl Pima)
  • Gigimai or Kiy'kima dialect
  • Hu: hu'ula or Huhumu dialect
  • Huhuwoṣ or Hauhauwash dialect (descendants of the Soba)
  • Totoguañ (i) or Totoköwany dialect
  • Ge Aji or Santa Rosa Mountains dialect (†)
  • Anegam dialect (†)
  • Kohadk or Kohatk dialect (†) (descendants of the Koahadk)

Hia C-eḍ O'Odham or Sand Pápago variety

  • Pisinemo dialect (derived from Pisin Moʼo - "Buffalo Head")
  • Quitovac dialect (a mixture of Hia C-eḍ O'Odham and the Huhuwoṣ of the Soba)
  • Quitobaquito dialect (a mixture of Hia C-eḍ O'Odham and the Hu: hu'ula of Tohono O'Odham)
  • (maybe several other dialects?) (†)

Of the approx. 13,000 Akimel O'Odham (Pima) and approx. 20,000 Tohono O'Odham (Papago, including the approx. 1000 Hia C-eḍ O'Odham) (Ichihashi-Nakayama 2004) in the USA, only speak Around 14,000 still speak their mother tongue , among the several thousand O'Odham (Pápago and possibly some Hia C-eḍ O'Odham) in Mexico, only around 100 speak their mother tongue , most of them use either American English or Mexican Spanish in everyday life (Español Mexicano) (according to Golla 2007).

population

For 1680, the Tohono O'Odham population is estimated at 6,000. In 1910 the US authorities counted 3798, 1923 5672 and 1937 6305 Tohono O'Odham. In 2000, the US census found 20,087 people with Tohono O'Odham blood, including 17,466 whole-blood Tohono O'Odham. Today most of the approximately 25,000 Tohono O'Odham live in southern Arizona. In addition, several thousand Tohono O'Odham live in adjacent northern Sonora , Mexico .

Settlement area

When the Europeans arrived in America, the Tohono O'Odham lived in an area south and south-east of the Gila River , mainly south of Tucson ( Cuk ṣon - "[at] the foot of the Black [mountain]"), in what is now the United States. Their settlement area extended further into the valley of the Santa Cruz River and west / southwest of it across the Sonoran Desert to Sonora , Mexico . The second tribal group, the Hia C-eḍ O'Odham , lived west and southwest of the Tohono O'Odham in the Sonoran Desert from the Gulf of California to the Tinajas Altas Mountains in Arizona. The desert and semi-desert areas of the Papago and Sand Papago were called Papaguerita by the Spanish .

Traditional culture

Tohono O'Odham

The Tohono O'Odham, who lived in more fertile areas, made their living in addition to hunting and collecting wild plants, seeds and wild fruits to a certain extent by farming. Since they switched between winter camp and summer camp during the year, they were called two-villagers . They set up their winter camps (so-called winter well villages ) near the springs and rivers of the mountain foothills. They set up their summer camps on the plateaus between the ridges. There they built stone dams to channel the summer rain to their fields. On these they grew corn , pumpkins , watermelons and especially beans . In addition, the gathering of wild fruits, especially the saguaro fruits, was an important part of their culture. Since hunting and agriculture were not very productive in this dry area, the Tohono O'Odham worked in the fields of the Pima ( Akimel O ' Odham ) to generate additional food. Close allies on the northern border with Apacheria were the Pima (and later the Maricopa ) from the middle of the 17th century ; together they provided the whites with reliable scouts and warriors in the fight against the Apaches.

The Tohono O'Odham lived just like the other O'Odham groups except the Hia C-eḍ O'Odham in widely dispersed settlements of stilt houses made of adobe along the rivers or in well-irrigated mountain and desert areas. Each family had fields scattered along the banks of the river, often far apart. They only met at the most important ceremonies or to keep their families safe when the warriors from different settlements met to take action against a common enemy ( Apaches , Opata , Yaqui ( called Hihakim , singular: Hiakim ), Yuma ). The Tohono O'Odham made pottery and woven baskets.

Hia C-eḍ O'Odham

Before the submission by the whites, the Hia C-eḍ O'Odham were the only ones among all O'Odham groups to live as pure hunters and gatherers, mainly from the fruits of cacti, wild plants, berries and hunting game ( bighorn sheep , Mule deer and forked antelopes , antelope hares , donkey hares , muskrats and lizards ). They also ate a certain edible desert plant (commonly called sand food ), mesquite fruits , saguaro and pitahaya fruits . During certain times of the year they moved to the coast of the Gulf of California to fish and to extract salt . Due to their geographical proximity to the River Yuma , they borrowed certain cultural characteristics from the Yuma, so that, according to some sources, they were culturally more like the Yuma than the neighboring O'Odham groups, with the exception of their language. According to historical sources, the Hia C-eḍ O'Odham were on friendly terms with the Cocopa , Quechan and Halchidhoma .

Since they lived in the almost rainless western area of ​​the Papaguerita (called El Gran Desierto - 'the great desert' by the Spaniards ), they were forced to constantly change camps as nomads and were therefore called no-villagers . On their constant hikes, they only lived in shrub huts ( Wickiups ) or sometimes only simple wind screens (Spanish: ramada ), which allowed them to quickly set up and dismantle the camp.

history

Father Eusebio Kino was probably the first white man to meet the Tohono O'Odham on his first expedition in 1694. The history of the Tohono O'Odham is closely related to that of the Pima, apart from the fact that they came into less contact with the whites than the Pima.

Catholic missionaries began converting the Tohono O'Odham to Christianity in the late 17th century. The missionaries were quite successful, which prevented major wars against the Mexicans and Americans. In 1865, about 150 Tohono O'Odham warriors supported the US Army as scouts and mercenaries against the Apaches . The cooperation turned out to be difficult for the US troops, however, as the Tohono O'Odham underwent a 16-day cleaning process after each enemy killed. In addition, only a select few Tohono O'Odham who belonged to a war party were allowed to kill at all. In Mexico, the Tohono O'Odham fought mainly against the Yaqui . The Mexican state of Sonora paid them 25 silver pesos for each chopped off right hand of a Yaqui.

It was not until 1917 that the Tohono O'Odham were placed under the general reservation system. In this way they were able to preserve a large part of their traditional way of life.

Local groups and villages of the Tohono O'Odham

The Tohono O'Odham (Pápago) ("People of the Desert") traditionally inhabited the Papaguería ("Eastern Papaguería") , always alternating between winter and summer settlements ("Two-Villagers"):

  • Kuitatk ( kúí tátk - " Mesquite root")
  • Sikorhimat ( sikol himadk - "village by the whirlpools of water")
  • Wahw Kihk ( wáw kéˑkk - "upright rock")
  • San Pedro ( wiwpul - "wild tobacco")
  • Tciaur ( jiawul dáhăk - " Barrel Cactus Sitting")
  • Anegam ( ʔáˑngam - "place of the desert willow" [English: desert willow, botanical: Chilopsis linearis ])
  • Imkah ( ʔiˑmiga - "relatives")
  • Tecolote ( kolóˑdi , also cú´kud kúhūk - "screaming owl")

Bands of the Hia C-eḍ O'Odham

The Hia C-eḍ O'Odham (Sand Papago / Sand Pima) ("people of the sand dunes") or Areneños (the Spanish adapted the self-designation as Pápagos de la arena or briefly Areneños , the Americans referred to them as Sand Papago or Sand Pima ) , lived as nomads and thus in no permanent settlements ("No-Villagers") west and southwest of the Tohono O'Odham in the Gran Desierto de Altar ("Western Papaguería") , divided geographically and culturally into two separated by the Sonoita River Groups - the Northern Hia C-eḍ O'Odham were culturally and politically close to the Yuma tribes and Tohono O'Odham and the Southern Hia C-eḍ O'Odham were close to the Sobas (Soba Pimas) and Seris .

Todays situation

The descendants of Tohono O'Odham and Hia C-eḍ O'Odham now live in several Indian Reservations in southern Arizona (derived from al ṣonag - "place of the small spring") west of Tucson or in one of the nearby cities. Due to the location on the border, a 120 km long section of the border wall planned by Donald Trump would run over the territory of the Tohono O'Odham, which the tribe rejects. South of the Mexican-American border there is no separate reserve for the Tohono O'Odham (and possibly some Hia C-eḍ O'Odham), but up to 145 km (90 miles) south of Arizona there are many communities in the Mountains of Sonora and in the area of ​​the Sierra el Pinacate.

Indian Reservations of Tohono and Hia C-eḍ O'Odham

The map shows the location of the Tohono O'Odham Nation in Pima County ; The large Tohono O'Odham Reservation and the smaller San Xavier Reservation are highlighted in red; the individual sections in Maricopa County and Pinal County are not shown.
Girl of the Papago, Edward Curtis , 1908

Today the Tohono O'Odham live mainly from cattle breeding and soil cultivation, thanks to artificially irrigated fields. The Ak-Chin reservation , which covers 21,000 acres (85 km²), includes a 10,000 acres (40 km²) farm that mainly grows cotton .

The Tohono O'odham Nation Reservation , San Xavier Reservation, and Gila Bend Reservation share government with the administration at Sells , Arizona. Together they cover an area of ​​2.8 million acres (11,000 km²), most of which is desert.

A few archaeological sites have been preserved, for example ruins of the Hohokam culture . The Hohokam are considered to be the ancestors of the Tohono O'Odham. The Tohono O'Odham Reservations have become the largest corridor for illegal Mexican immigrants in recent years.

See also

literature

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Tucson Citizen (October 15, 1996) by Paul L. Allen: Hia-Ced O'odham thought to be extinct
  2. Indian Country Today Media Network.com (June 30, 2013) by Jacelle Ramon-Sauberan: Extinct No More: Hia-Ced O'odham Officially Join Tohono O'odham Nation
  3. Other names for the Tohono O'Odham, formerly known as Papago: Pawi , Pavi , Tepari , Escomite , Yori mui and Yori muni , the name 'Tepary' is probably derived from the language of the Tohono O'Odham - t'pawi - "This is a bean"
  4. Bautista de Anza Trail - Glossary
  5. ^ Settlement areas of the Pima Alto
  6. Shadows at Dawn - The Peoples
  7. ^ Gary Paul Nabhan: Gathering the Desert , University of Arizona Press, ISBN 978-0816510146
  8. ^ Paul E. Minnis: Ethnobotany: A Reader, University of Oklahoma Press, May 2000, ISBN 978-0806131801 , page 43
  9. ^ Gary Paul Nabhan: Cultures of Habitat: On Nature, Culture, and Story, Counterpoint Verlag, September 16, 1998, ISBN 978-1887178969 , page 132
  10. ↑ The actual culturally belonging to the Pima may also speak . Pima or Piatos a dialect of the Pápago.
  11. Saxton, Dean, Saxton, Lucille and Enos, Susie: Dictionary: Tohono O'odham / Pima to English, English to Tohono O'odham / Pima . 145 pages, University of Arizona Press, 1998, ISBN 978-0816519422
  12. PL Workman, Robert S. Corruscini, JD Niswander: Anthropological Studies Related to Health Problems of North American Indians, Irvington Publishing, July 1974, ISBN 978-0842271578 , pp. 29-31
  13. (Ko) Kolo'di is the adaptation from the Spanish Tecolote - "owl", also Cukuḍ kúhūk - "screaming owl"
  14. Abgel. from Ge Aji Doʼag , the O'Odham name of the Gu Achi Peaks in the Santa Rosa Mountains, Arizona
  15. ^ Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument - Hia Ced O'odham
  16. ^ Ethnologue - Tohono O'odham
  17. Refers to one or both of the volcanic hills on the west bank of the Santa Cruz River
  18. TOHONO 'O'ODHAM-ENGLISH DICTIONARY
  19. ^ JW Hoover: Generic Descent of the Papago Villages. American Anthropologist, Vol. 37, No. 2, Part 1, pages 257-264
  20. ^ Papago local groups and defensive villages, period 1859-1890. Underhill 1939, pp. 211-234.
  21. Both groups of Hia C-ed O'Odham sometimes by their dialect as Amargosa Areneños or Amargosa Pinacateños called
  22. Quitobaquito Springs
  23. ^ Paul E. Minnis: Ethnobotany: A Reader , University of Oklahoma Press, May 2000, ISBN 978-0806131801 , pp. 41-43
  24. ^ Border with Mexico: US government presents plans for Trump's wall . ( handelsblatt.com [accessed March 19, 2017]).
  25. ^ Indigenous Peoples' Human Rights Initiative - The Tohono O'Odham