Redeployment

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Redeployment or professional redeployment referred to the measures taken by Jewish organizations to convey new professional prospects to Jews who were no longer allowed to work in the professions they had previously exercised or who had little or no chance of advancement. Redeployment meant above all the qualification for agricultural and craft activities.

To define the term redeployment

The Duden mainly knows restructuring in connection with finance. With this meaning, the term is mostly used on the Internet. When it comes to budget, budget or custody issues, people usually speak of “restructuring”, “regrouping”, “rearranging” or “relocating”. The following definition would also fit into this horizon of meaning: “The term redeployment describes the conversion of material or immaterial values ​​of a company into liquid form.” By definition, “redeployment / redeployment” is also used in connection with demographic developments: “The population is stratifying around (the structure of the population is changing). ”Other explanations use the term redeployment in connection with changes in the labor market:“ According to forecasts by labor market researchers, the German labor market is facing a massive job shift with the imminent digitization of the economy. With the so-called Economy 4.0, the bottom line would be that hardly any jobs would be lost by 2025. Hundreds of thousands of employees would have to completely reorient themselves professionally, according to a study by the Institute for Employment Research (IAB). "

A definition of the German pension insurance comes closer to the historical meaning of the term . At least she states: “The occupational shift affected Jewish people who had lost their employment or occupation for reasons of persecution, that is, who were initially 'unemployed'. (Also the Hebrew name, this occupational redeployment Hachsharah known ') was intended to retrain in manual occupations, because it was more possible in these professions to get a new job; In particular, there were better opportunities to emigrate. Job redeployment has been carried out in various ways in handicrafts, agriculture and housekeeping redeployment offices (for example on farms, estates, agricultural and housekeeping schools). The period of professional redeployment is to be recognized as further persecution-related unemployment. The fact that an apprenticeship was carried out does not preclude the assumption of unemployment, because the professional shift did not offer a livelihood corresponding to the profession that was sought or practiced before the persecution. "

None of these definitions apply or, as in the last case, only partially describe what was expected of large parts of the Jewish population in Germany after 1933 as an inevitable professional reorientation. To declare politically intentional displacement from work as “unemployment caused by persecution” refers to an administrative jargon that is closer to Dolf Sternberger's From the Unhuman Dictionary than to the suffering of the victims of this “unemployment caused by persecution”.

If one disregards the attempted definition of the German pension insurance , then one must also state that the term redeployment in relation to a professional reorientation of Jewish people was used almost exclusively as a definition of a process from the Jewish point of view: positive even before 1933 from the Zionist point of view, and initially more neutral as a concept of adaptation to changed political conditions. But the meaning of the term did not remain constant, it was subject to change the more restrictive the National Socialist policy towards the Jews became and ultimately merged into the term Hachshara , the horizon of which was relatively broad: “Training, preparation, 'redeployment', preparation for the Road to Palestine ”. Originally, however, it was a rather two-stage concept that combined the terms: “Redeployment was the answer to the fact that after 1933 young Jews no longer had access to most professions. As a result, training courses for agricultural and craft professions were offered in closed Jewish training camps. Hachsharah is Hebrew and means "preparation", means: preparation for a new existence in Erez Yisrael (= Land of Israel) . "Josef Olbrich also emphasizes this two-stage character in his description of the change in the policy of the" Central Committee for Aid and Development ":

“In 1933 the Central Committee had still advocated the policy that Jews should stay in Germany and secure their own livelihoods here, but in view of the increasingly radical repression measures and the extensive destruction of the livelihoods of the profession, emigration to Palestine and preparation for it through measures of the Relearning, retraining and training are the focus of the work: the so-called hachshara. The term can be translated as training and retraining. The professional "shifting" of workers from the overrepresented academic and commercial professions into practical, manual and agricultural activities for "workers and settlers" [..] towards a "normal professional structure" became the focus of the central committee's educational work. The youth and the younger generation were addressed in particular. In addition to the professional redeployment, the central committee had to take care of the initial training of young people under the age of 18. Since the normal training path was closed to the young people and it became almost impossible to find an apprenticeship position, forms of collective training had to be organized. For the initial training, special training workshops were set up that were called »Middle Hachshara«. "

Redeployment and hachshara also played an important role in the educational programs of many schools in exile and rural Jewish school homes . Anna Essinger put it this way for the Bunce Court School , which she runs and which mainly teaches Jewish émigré children: “We tried from the beginning to make it clear to the children that university studies would not only be difficult, but in some cases impossible, but ourselves where it was financially possible, we thought it unwise to specialize in this way. Our life at school made them realize that other activities can also be enjoyed. "

Not only young Jews had to forego university career prospects, but also, after 1933, more and more adults too.

Redeployment as a Zionist concept before 1933

In 1934 the author Fritz Friedländer published the essay "The struggle for the Prussian emancipation of the Jews in 1833". In it, the term redeployment is used for a development in the early 19th century : “Since the awakening of the struggle for emancipation, the Jews have done amazing things in order to deserve emancipation. The qualities that are criticized in them are nothing more than the reaction to the oppression. The professional restructuring of the Jewish youth is in full swing. She turned away from the chess trade and in some places turned to handicrafts. Accordingly, it should be noted as a fact that the spirit of the Jews is generally at a level that demands respect and can defy any premature accusation. ”However, it is difficult to say whether the term Friedländer actually used as early as the 1830s Years ago, or whether the author used the term from his understanding of time to describe an earlier development. In any case, in the 1930s the term redeployment was well known and belonged to the concept of Zionist endeavors long before the National Socialist policy made redeployment a necessity for survival for Jews in Germany. An example of this is provided by the Jewish youth union Blau-Weiß : “After the Balfour Declaration of 1917, which guaranteed the right of Jews to build a“ national home ”in Palestine, the Blau-Weiß-Bund saw job shifts, agricultural training and immigration in Palestine to the determining objective. In Halbe near Potsdam and at the Markenhof near Freiburg im Breisgau , blue-and-white teaching materials were created for the Hachschara , which was the name of the agricultural and craft pioneer training in preparation for work in Palestine. [..] The first ventures of the Blue-White in Palestine failed, almost half of the 977 emigrants returned to Germany. The reason was the social isolation of the country-based groups and disputes with the Histadrut union . With the end of the projects in Palestine, the end of blue and white in Germany was sealed. ”This did not mean that Zionist redeployment concepts had become obsolete; they experienced their renaissance after 1933.

Redeployment as a necessary consequence of National Socialist policy

Redeployment as a Zionist concept was by no means off the table after the failure of the Blau-Weiß association , but it initially became a necessity before a changed political situation in Germany. After the National Socialists came to power on January 30, 1933 and the law to restore the civil service on April 7, 1933, thousands of civil servants, including a large number of university members, teachers and lawyers, as well as independent professions such as notaries or patent attorneys, were no longer allowed to practice their profession . In an editorial for the first edition of the magazine Der Auseg in Paris . Monthly for Reshuffle, Migration, Settlement , James Grover MacDonald, High Commissioner for Refugee Relief at the League of Nations and later first US Ambassador to Israel , spoke in this context of the breakdown of Jewish livelihoods in Germany and underlined the need for Jews to have their children at their work to educate, to give them the opportunity to earn their life in a new environment, under new circumstances. Be it Palestine, be it another part of the world where they want to settle, be it that they want to stay in Europe, in any case they are aware that as farmers or industrial workers they are far more likely to find their bread , because as doctors, lawyers. Merchants or small employees. MacDonald also saw that this was not an easy task against the background of Jewish history: “For centuries, the Jews were forced to become urban people under the toughest conditions. Their field of employment was limited. They were not allowed to devote themselves to agriculture and many professions were also closed to them. Only in the course of the last century were they given access to these professions. "

Jewish farmers were an exception in Germany, as the historian Frank Eyck (born July 13, 1921 in Berlin - † December 28, 2004 in Calgary) explained using an example from 1928 and the Jewish farmer Heinrich Kaphan : “Through friends in Berlin We found out about a farm in Pomerania that took on paying holidaymakers. That was the 'Emilienhof' in East Pomerania, not far from the Polish border. It belonged to Heinrich Kaphan, a Jewish farmer who fought in World War I. Jewish farmers were a comparable rarity, because Jews had not been allowed to own any land for centuries. "When the Kaphan family emigrated to Brazil in 1936 to build a farm in Rolândia , they belonged to a rare species among the other emigrants:" Very few of the emigrants who settled in the jungle were trained farmers before they arrived. B. the settlement partner of Max Hermann Maier, Heinrich Kaphan, and the later electoral consul of the Federal Republic of Germany, Hermann Miguel Bresslau. Geert Koch-Weser, the son of Erich Koch-Weser, was an outspoken agricultural expert . He was a trained farmer and had completed a degree in agricultural science with a doctorate from Professor Friedrich Aereboe . "

The objectively determined exclusion of Jewish citizens from many practical occupations inevitably corresponded to prejudices and also self-attributions, which as a result Jews are not suitable for practical work. Anna Essinger protested against this in 1943 when she revealed that the Jewish students at the Bunce Court School she directed “do good practical work with appropriate guidance, as long as they don't have to be content with practical activities alone; in addition, they need intellectual stimulation for their leisure time, and most importantly, they find the right 'nourishment' for the eight hours that they do not spend on work or sleep, but that they can fill in with artistic or other activities to raise their hearts and minds To satisfy the mind. "

Redeployment as a basis for remaining in Germany

Already during the German Empire - at that time "as a reaction to the growing anti-Semitism after the founding of the Reich in 1871" - and then again increasingly from the 1920s, there were efforts in Germany to "acquire land for Jewish farmers in Germany. This was by no means a matter of Zionist endeavors, which had already existed for decades and trained the next generation to develop and expand agricultural settlements in Israel, but rather a project that was understood to be German-national. That nothing came of it and could not become evident in the years that followed 1927. ”The background to this was a“ professional stratification ”of the Jewish population that was perceived as one-sided and which had to be“ restructured ”. The idea behind this concept: Above all, the national-conservative Reichsbund Jüdischer Frontsoldaten (RjF) saw the shifting of occupations and the establishment of Jewish agricultural settlements in Germany as “a kind of“ positive defense ”against anti-Semitism, a“ defense from within out »: The pitchfork in the hands of the urban Jews should convince a thousand times more than any propaganda. For this purpose the RjF founded the Reichsbund for Jewish Settlements and the Jewish Landarbeit GmbH, which were also supported by leading people outside of their own organization ”.

The Reichsvertretung der Deutschen Juden ( Reichsvertretung ), founded on September 17, 1933, also ties in indirectly with this , which from the beginning "has its most important tasks [..] strengthening the community spirit and enabling people to help themselves, as well as welfare work, economic aid, professional shifting, the school system and preparation and organization of emigration ”counted. At that time, the Reich Representation saw the primary goal of a professional shift in the "reorganization of Jews who had become unemployed as a result of the political upheaval, and to raise the necessary funds among the Jews of Germany and by the Jewish aid organizations abroad." The Reich Representation aimed to shift occupations, especially for young people, whereby the focus should be on productive occupations: workers, craftsmen, farm workers. Salomon Adler-Rudel expressly emphasizes "that the idea of ​​changing occupations has not yet been consistently linked to that of emigration, at least not at the beginning of the work" of the Reich Representation . The presence of Jews who were willing to emigrate and who also had to relocate their jobs was recognized by the Reich Representation, but the focus was first of all on the fact that after the political upheaval in 1933 there were not only “Jews who remain in Germany for business or personal reasons had to, but also others who, despite everything, wanted to stay in Germany and saw their future there; some of them hoped that the new regime would be short lived, others that its anti-Semitic tendencies would weaken once it was firmly established, so that Jews would then also have a possibility of existence within its framework. "Jews who continued to see their future in Germany, an opportunity should be created to fit in better and easier in economic life, even under the changed political framework conditions - and reallocation was seen as the key to this.

On 12 June 1933, the closely held with the Central Organization affiliated Salomon Adler-Rudel, also head of guidance at the Jewish Community of Berlin, in Berlin presented a paper on "Jewish professional issues of the day." He lamented the fact that "in Germany, and especially in Berlin, the proportion of German Jews in intellectual and commercial occupations is strikingly large, while their proportion in manual occupations has steadily declined, and in some occupations it is completely absent." According to the report on the event, this was, on the one hand, the result of a tendency among Jews in the past to primarily pursue those professions "which, according to the outdated view, were 'socially acceptable'", but "the attentive and responsible observers have been there since Years of visible repression of the Jews did not escape, since entire branches of industry such as chemistry, potash etc. would have kept German Jews away ”. This initial situation, the now increased displacement from a large number of professions and “the only very conditional admission to higher schools and studies will inevitably lead to a professional shift. [..] We do not yet know the full impact of all previous laws, there are still special provisions to be feared by the class-like organizations. It is already a fact that no Jew is accepted as a member of the newly created employee organization. But we also know that it is by no means a new social demand that has been carried out often in the past not to tolerate any unorganized employees in companies ... but the number of Jewish employees in Germany is around 150 thousand !! "

Even more than this retrospective, Adler-Rudel was afraid of the future: “The times of bourgeois carelessness will probably be over for the foreseeable future, the standard of living that has been lived up to now has to be changed in good time and voluntarily in order to use the values ​​that are still available at the moment for a useful one Vocational retraining of adults, for a highly developed training of our youth in real jobs. For the selection of the individual professions there cannot be a generally applicable patent solution, personal suitability and one's own material strength always have to decide. ”But even he does not know how to suggest anything more than“ to prepare through physical training for heavy physical work that is everywhere in Agriculture, horticulture, craft and industry are required ”.

Adler-Rudel only touches on the subject of emigration at the end of his lecture, emphasizing that the professional shift is useful in both cases. Whether out of helplessness or unbroken optimism: looking back on 1933, his final appeal seems strange: "To preserve existing livelihoods, as a Jewish employer to stand up for his employees and to make it easier for young people to build up their livelihood."

On June 19, 1933, also in Berlin, the managing director of the Reich Association for Jewish Settlements in Germany , Martin Goetz, spoke again about the question of professional redeployment. With him it was particularly about the consideration of the agricultural and horticultural professional shifts. According to Goetz, one could not discuss the shifting of occupations "from the one-sided agricultural point of view, but there can be no doubt that this is the first time that this is a practical and tried-and-tested approach compared to the many tactile attempts in other occupational areas." As a positive example, he refers to the von Martin Gerson , the head of the “Department of Vocational Training and Reclassification” of the Reichsvertretung , appointed in 1933 , founded a Jewish settlement in Groß Gaglow near Cottbus, where a number of “Jewish people of all ages [are] settled, people from every professional branch such as bank clerks, clerks, etc. who have a modest but adequate existence there today. "Goetz doubts that another attempt of this kind could be possible for political reasons and therefore also refers to the need to" train exportable ", but a Germany-related perspective is still in the foreground:

“Efforts will continue to be made to bring the Jews in Germany down to earth, and one had to assume that this endeavor by the German Jews is in the interests of the National Government. If the Jews are pushed out of the professions in which they are too strongly represented according to their proportion of the population and in which they are poorly represented, they must be free to look for opportunities to exist here. We, on the other hand, have to face the facts and prove, as Jews, that we are able to work physically and can do the agricultural profession as well as anyone else. [..] Opportunities, even if only to a limited extent, to continue employing German Jews on agricultural holdings in Germany after their training are available here. Wherever possible, one would have to take care of supplying the Jewish population, especially the Jewish institutions such as hospitals, old people's homes, etc., with agricultural products from Jewish businesses. Similar to how one makes propaganda among co-religionists to support the handicraft, one can organize the sale of agricultural products from Jewish businesses to Jews. It is not at all necessary that new land is acquired, but many communities have Jewish land, some of which is fallow or leased. It is only a question of productivizing this land and that which is in private Jewish hands for Jewish purposes. Certainly there will only be few opportunities here and without the acquisition of new land, a professional shift in the sense of settling down in Germany is not feasible for considerable parts of German Jewry. "

In addition to the Groß-Gaglow teaching estate already quoted, Goetz lists a few other agricultural and horticultural training centers for Jewish people that were able to relocate in 1933:

According to Martin Goetz, these 6 institutions were all non-profit training companies, to which a number of private companies are added, "both large agricultural estates and gardening shops that are in Jewish hands and that take on interns".

Goetz also goes back to the subject of emigration, noting that Palestine is problematic not only because of the immigration regulations, but also because “not all Jews have the ideological attitude” for there. But he also warns against South American and African countries: “Colonization in all of these countries is certainly possible, but it is infinitely more difficult than in European countries or countries that are close to Europe. The following can be considered: France, certain parts of Italy, Spain, even England, the North African fringes of the Mediterranean. Here you will not put any obstacles in the way of immigrants who want to become farmers or gardeners and who have some equity, on the contrary, they will find the support of the relevant bodies. ”In principle, for him and the Reich Representation only emigration is the last chance. How wrong this assessment was was not only shown by the fact that the Groß-Gaglow teaching material , which he praised so much, was closed in the second half of 1933.

Redeployment in preparation for emigration

The concept of wanting to make German Jews resident on German soil turned out to be obsolete by autumn 1933 at the latest, although the Reichsbund Jüdischer Frontsoldaten and the organizations and persons close to it held on to it for several years. But on September 29, 1933 the Reichserbhofgesetz was passed, which forbade non-Aryans to remain or become a farmer, and it was foreseeable that switching to agricultural professions could no longer have a future, if only to remain in Germany was aligned. This strengthened the Zionist organizations, who pleaded for emigration to Palestine and made appropriate preparations, but people like Martin Gerson now turned to the Hachshara . The "Department of Vocational Training and Occupational Reshuffle" of the Reich Representation gave him the supervision of all Hachshara centers.

Non-Zionist Hachshara traditions in Germany have been pushed back since the 1920s and the establishment of the non-partisan umbrella organization Hechaluz by Zionist positions committed to the ideal of Aliyah and the primacy of pioneering work in Palestine. These tendencies now intensified and found an echo especially within the Jewish youth organizations. In this context, however, the concept was defined more broadly than with the redeployment for Jews remaining in Germany: “The way to Palestine is a way of pioneering [...]. It leads through professional restructuring and spiritual change. It can only be walked with a resolve to start everything from the beginning. ”The corresponding training took place in the Hachshara centers. “The predominant form of training was the individual hachschara, in which those wishing to leave the country worked for a farmer or in a craft business, supported and looked after by Hechaluz centers. From 1933 the number of Hechaluz members tripled, and the Zionist-Chaluzian leagues, which were oriented towards emigration, also grew strongly. ”Since not enough places could be made available in Germany for this growing number of those willing to emigrate, the training also relocated to neighboring countries. This is how the Youth Alija Centers abroad were set up (including in Romania, Lithuania, Northern Ireland, England, Sweden, France, Luxembourg, Denmark) to accommodate young people for whom there were no certificates. The foreign hachschara existed in ten European countries in the 1930s, mainly as a single hachschara. Only on the Werkdorp estate in Holland did young Chaluzim live, learn and work together in the style of a Hachshara kibbutz. Werner Angress, however, attests only a limited value to this so-called foreign hachschara: “Unfortunately, after completing the usually two-year training period, they [the participants] were generally not allowed to stay abroad, but had to return to Germany if they could not move on to Palestine or overseas. "

Even if emigration and the preparation for it became more and more important, the question of the emigration destination was not decided once and for all. Palestine was beyond doubt for the Zionist organizations, but there were still non-Zionist forces who, analogous to the centers abroad, favored emigration to neighboring European countries or to South America. In this context, the founding of the Groß Breesen teaching facility at the beginning of 1936 and its director Curt Bondy came under criticism from Zionist circles. From the Zionist point of view, the adherence to German culture anchored in the plans for Groß Breesen as well as a heritage worth preserving for German Jews disturbed more than the supposedly imprecise emigration destination . If that is important to you, you have to stay in Germany, persevere with all the consequences:

“We can understand that a group of Jews whose feelings have not been changed by the profound changes in the environment in their assessment of the Jewish question are against their own or their children becoming members of a living Jewish people in Palestine. From this they can draw the consequence of staying at their post here, and if they are forced to emigrate for economic reasons, then they will have to accept this as a tragic fate. To turn this into an action by the Jewish community, for which public funds are used, and to put the matter under the cloak of a - more than unclear - ideology seems to us wrong and suitable to confuse the Jewish public inside and outside Germany. "

Palestine or elsewhere - this internal Jewish dispute was decided politically on other levels. Since hardly any country was willing to accept large numbers of Jews from Germany, Palestine remained the only realistic perspective for emigration despite all the difficulties.

“On March 23, 1938, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt invited 32 states to a major international emigration conference in Evian, Switzerland. But anyone who has read the invitation more closely knows that any hope placed in this meeting is in vain: No country, writes Roosevelt, is expected to accept more emigrants than the current laws allow. Since there are several months between the invitation and the start of the conference, some states are taking this as an opportunity to quickly tighten their immigration regulations. The conference will run from July 6th to 15th. And, as was to be feared, none of the 29 countries that accepted the invitation are willing to accept a large number of Jewish refugees - with the exception of the Dominican Republic. The Australian representative announced that he did not want to import a racial problem. The USA is sticking to its policy of not exhausting the immigration quotas as decided as a result of the Great Depression of 1929. Anti-Semitism is not an exclusively German phenomenon. And not a few see the cause of anti-Jewish resentment in the Jewish refugees themselves. "

A project that was largely outside the internal Jewish controversy was the Quaker- run agricultural school in conjunction with the Quaker School Eerde in Holland. It served as preparation for emigration, but, like the teaching material Groß Breesen , was not focused on Palestine.

Redeployment in Palestine

In view of the numbers that Adler-Rudel researched about participation in redeployment measures - 6,069 redeployers as of December 31, 1933 - it becomes clear that redeployment was an important instrument in preparation for emigration, but also an instrument with only a limited scope. This does not change anything if an article in the Jüdische Allgemeine on November 7, 2013 stated that “between 1933 and 1941 [..] more than 66,500 people were being prepared for their forced emigration through vocational training and redeployment, and that Leave the country before the genocide ”because“ by the end of 1938, over 200,000 Jews from Western and Central Europe immigrated to Palestine ”. This means that in fact only a third of the emigrants could be prepared for their emigration and many, especially older people, had to start their trip to Palestine without preparation for the living conditions there. The result: “Many Jews from Germany, referred to as ' Jeckes ' in Palestine, did not find it easy to adapt to the Mediterranean lifestyle and the hot climate. Their stiff manners, their bourgeois clothing style, their exaggerated politeness and their adherence to the German language made them stand out. For many, the move was associated with a loss of status. " Shlomo Erel made it clear how quickly these peculiarities of German immigrants found their way into (black) Israeli humor:" Also the academic and other titles brought from Germany, and the polite formality of their use , are ridiculed in the pioneering country of Palestine. With a chain of Jeckes passing on building blocks from hand to hand, one only hears endlessly: 'Here you go, Herr Doktor, thank you, Herr Doktor.'

The background for this was that “the occupational stratification of the immigrants [...] in no way [corresponded] to the needs of the country, which at that time was still in a pre-capitalist and pre-industrial state. There were few farmers who would have been necessary. The majority had worked in trade, crafts and, above all, academic professions in Germany. There was hardly any opportunity for them to practice the professions they had once learned. Almost inevitably, immigration was accompanied by a social decline, the lowering of the standard of living. ”This was less true of the younger generation, who had been trained in Zionism by the Hachshara centers, than of the middle and older generation, who, in addition to professional uprooting in Palestine, were also threatened with cultural uprooting. For them, immigration to Palestine was “connected at most with the propagated 'ascent' (Allijah) in ideological terms. Economically and culturally it was a decline. It is all the less surprising that these people liked to remember the old German conditions destroyed by the National Socialists. "

The difficulties of making a new start can be exemplified by the example of Klaus Dreyer , who, born in 1909 and trained as a doctor, came to Palestine in 1936 as the leader of a Hachshara group. He first lived in a kibbutz and then tried to become a self-employed farmer. But his plot did not yield enough income, and so he also had to work as a day laborer in order to make a living. “During the years 1937-41 I worked for days as a construction worker, building roads, as a gymnastics and substitute teacher at school, as a lifesaver on the beach, delivering milk for neighbor Strauss and finally with the horse, in which I was involved with a quarter , for plow and transport equipment. All of this in addition to growing vegetables, tending and watering the fruit trees, tending and milking the goats and keeping some chickens, ducks and rabbits. In addition, there was frequent night watch and work building the fence around Nahariah, because of the new unrest that flared up. ”He found a way back to his traditional job by joining the Hagana and then the Palmach , where he was responsible for medical training.

Klaus Hillenbrand also illustrates the often very difficult beginnings of the newcomers in Palestine, which Zionists had to overcome as well as non-Zionists:

“For those who, as former administrative employees, could not find a new job and were supposed to live on poor social assistance, a Zionist worldview only helped to a limited extent. Some people sold books or set up short-lived lending libraries through a vendor's shop in the streets of Tel Aviv or Jerusalem. Often the more flexible wives took on the job of making money, cleaning or working as nannies, while their helpless husbands sat idle at home - a cultural break that some men found difficult to get over. Many educated immigrants had to work as unskilled workers in construction. "

The immigrants did not have to get along in Palestine entirely without help. Ernst Lewy , Felix Rosenblüth and Theodor Zlocisti were among the initiators of Hitachduth Olej Germania (HOG) in Tel Aviv in 1932 , the "Association of Immigrants from Germany" ("The old Germanic people, as they were called at the time."). In the following years, the HOG mainly took care of the professional shifting and job placement of German-speaking immigrants and their cultural and social welfare support:

“The work of the HOG began with a port service in Jaffa and Haifa to help the immigrants with the formalities and dealings with the customs authorities as well as the transportation of luggage, a housing service for the first accommodation and an employment agency. Around a thousand job seekers a month visited the three offices of the HOG in Tel Aviv, Haifa and Jerusalem as early as 1933. Some of them were grouped together by the HOG so that they could live together outside of the cities and learn a new profession and get work in agricultural or construction work. Perhaps the most important branch of employment counseling under the direction of Moshe Brachmann (Shilo) - in cooperation with the Histadruth - was the reallocation and establishment of specialist courses and apprenticeships.
Some of these courses (for concrete work, building locksmithing and joinery as well as for installation) were held in a technical school in Tel Aviv and at the technical center in Haifa. "

Despite these many difficulties that Jews from Germany had to overcome when immigrating to Palestine, their problems with their adjustment and professional, Schoeps comes to the conclusion:

“In contrast to all other waves of immigration, the immigration of German Jews was a highly organized enterprise, mainly supported by the tireless drive of Jewish self-help organizations. The preparation and implementation of the resettlement from Nazi Germany, the transfer of assets, the placement of employment, the language lessons as well as the legendary professional shift and other aid measures were exemplary. The Yishuv was in an important phase of development a pool of highly qualified scientific and practical forces that - critical to the construction of - despite all the difficulties Jewish sector in Palestine have contributed ".

However, Jews from Germany have hardly ever moved into leading political positions in the State of Israel.

swell

literature

  • Ulrike Pilarczyk: Community in Pictures. Jewish youth movement and Zionist educational practice in Germany and Palestine / Israel. (= Hamburg contributions to the history of the German Jews. Volume 35). With the collaboration of Ulrike Mietzner, Juliane Jacobi and Ilka von Cossart. Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen 2009, ISBN 978-3-8353-0439-0 , (igdj-hh.de)
  • Erich Bloch : Paradise lost. A life on Lake Constance 1897–1939. (= Konstanz historical and legal sources. Volume 33). Thorbecke, 1992, ISBN 3-7995-6833-6 . (Erich Bloch and his wife ran a farm in Horn auf der Höri from 1933 to 1939, which for many Jewish people became a place of professional reorganization and thus preparation for emigration from Germany)
  • Salomon (Schalom) Adler-Rudel: Jewish self-help under the Nazi regime 1933–1939 as reflected in the reports of the Reich Representation of Jews in Germany. Mohr, Tübingen 1974, ISBN 3-16-835232-2 , (books.google.de)
  • Werner T. Angress: Generation between fear and hope. Jewish youth in the Third Reich. 2nd Edition. Christians, Hamburg 1989, ISBN 3-7672-0886-5 , (zeitgeschichte-hamburg.de)
  • Francis R. Nicosia: Zionism and Anti-Semitism in the Third Reich. Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen 2012, ISBN 978-3-8353-1057-5 . In particular, Chapter VI: Jewish retraining and Nazi Jewish policy. Pp. 274-319.
  • Klaus Hillenbrand : Strangers in the new country. German Jews in Palestine and their view of Germany after 1945. S. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 2015, ISBN 978-3-10-033850-1 .

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Duden: Meaning of redeployment
  2. ^ Encyclopedia of funding: redeployment
  3. ↑ Universal Lexicon: rearrange
  4. ↑ Economy 4.0 leads to job redeployment
  5. ^ Job redeployment of the unemployed
  6. ↑ HACHSCHARA LANDWERK AHRENSDORF - definition of terms
  7. ^ The way of children and young people to Palestine
  8. ↑ For the distinction between “Central Committee for Help and Development” and the Reich Representation of the German Jews, see: The Reich Representation of the Jews in Germany and Jüdische Selbsthilfe .
  9. ^ Josef Olbrich: History of adult education in Germany. Leske + Budrich, Opladen 2001, ISBN 3-8100-3349-9 , p. 264.
  10. ↑ a b Anna Essinger: The Bunce Court School (1933-1943). In: Hildegard Feidel-Mertz (Hrsg.): Schools in Exile. The repressed pedagogy after 1933. rororo, Reinbek 1983, ISBN 3-499-17789-7 , pp. 81–82.
  11. ^ Fritz Friedländer: The struggle for the Prussian emancipation of the Jews in 1833.
  12. ↑ Ulrike Pilarczyk: Community in Pictures. 2009, p. 44.
  13. ^ Advocate for the Doomed: The Diaries and Papers of James G. McDonald, 1932-1935
  14. ↑ a b The way out. No. November 1, 1934.
  15. ↑ a b See also the article The settlement of Jewish farmers in Germany.
  16. ↑ University of Calgary: Frank Eyck fonds ( Memento of the original from April 19, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / asc.ucalgary.ca
  17. ^ "Through friends in Berlin we heard about a farm in Pomerania that took in paying guests for vacationing. This was Emilienhof in eastern Pomerania not far from the Polish border. It belonged to Heinrich Kaphan, a Jewish farmer who had fought in the First World War. Jewish farmers were a comparative rarity, because for centuries Jews had not been allowed to own land. ” Frank Eyck's memories of the Kaphanes ( Memento of the original from April 17, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and not yet checked . Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , (Pp. 13-17) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / vogelsteinpress.com
  18. ^ Dieter Marc Schneider: Johannes Schauff (1902–1990). Migration and 'Stabilitas' in the age of totalitarianism. Oldenbourg, Munich 2001, ISBN 3-486-56558-3 , p. 82.
  19. ↑ Ulrike Pilarczyk: Community in Pictures. 2009, p. 112, note 32.
  20. ↑ Avraham Barkai , Paul Mendes-Flohr : Aufbruch und Destruction 1918–1945. (= German-Jewish history in modern times. Volume 4). Beck Verlag, Munich 1997, ISBN 3-406-39706-9 , p. 96.
  21. ↑ Ulrike Pilarczyk: Community in Pictures. 2009, p. 101.
  22. ^ A b c Salomon (Schalom) eagle pack: Jewish self-help under the Nazi regime 1933–1939. 1974, pp. 11-12.
  23. ↑ a b c d e Jewish professional issues of the present. In: Posener Heimatblätter. 7, No. 10, 1933, pp. 57–58, quoted from: Posener Heimat deutscher Juden (Blog)
  24. ↑ a b c d e Jewish professional issues of the present. In: Posener Heimatblätter. 7, No. 11, 1933, pp. 63–65, quoted from the Poznan homeland of German Jews (blog)
  25. ^ Landwerk Neuendorf in Brandenburg
  26. ^ Wilhelminenhöhe - from the first and last days, 1923–1946
  27. ↑ It is unclear whether this property has anything to do with the Steckelsdorf Landwerk , which also belonged to Rathenow, or whether it was part of the history of Lötze Castle in Semlin (Rathenow) . See also: New Semliner Heft with exciting stories about the "Lötze". In: Märkische Allgemeine. 20th February 2014.
  28. ^ Hechaluz Deutscher Landesverband (Ed.): What is the Hechaluz? A few words to every Jew. Berlin 1933, quoted from: Ulrike Pilarczyk: Community in Pictures. 2009, p. 106.
  29. ↑ Ulrike Pilarczyk: Community in Pictures. 2009, p. 107. The website Der Kibbutz Cheruth in the villages around Aerzen in the years 1926–1930 gives a good impression of how the individual agricultural hachshara went
  30. ↑ Ulrike Pilarczyk: Community in Pictures. 2009, p. 108.
  31. ↑ Werner T. Angress: Generation between fear and hope. P. 36.
  32. ↑ A "Jewish Emigration School" , Jüdische Rundschau , No. 6, January 21, 1936. For the history of the teaching material Groß Breesen see Werner T. Angress: Generation between fear and hope. P. 51 ff.
  33. ↑ Christian Staas: Last Refuge. The story of the Jewish emigration to Palestine. In: time online. November 14, 2008.
  34. ^ Salomon (Schalom) eagle pack: Jewish self-help under the Nazi regime 1933-1939. 1974, p. 60 ff.
  35. ↑ Verena Buser: Fire on the estate. Hachshara camps for emigrants also fell victim to the pogroms. In: Jüdische Rundschau. November 7, 2013.
  36. ↑ a b Kim Wünschmann: Palestine as a place of refuge for European Jews until 1945. Federal Agency for Civic Education , September 16, 2014.
  37. ↑ Shlomo Erel: German Jews: The 'Jeckes' in Israeli humor.
  38. ↑ a b Julius H. Schoeps: The apolitical. About the hardship and difficulties of integration in the foreign homeland. In: time online. June 3, 1977, updated November 21, 2012.
  39. ^ Klaus Hillenbrand: Strangers in the new country. 2015, p. 24.
  40. ↑ Klaus Dreyer: From medical student to agriculture to professor of medicine. In: Shlomo Erel sel. A. (Ed.): Jeckes Erziegen. From the life of German-speaking immigrants in Israel. LIT Verlag, Vienna 2004, ISBN 3-8258-7589-X , pp. 98-109.
  41. ^ Klaus Hillenbrand: Strangers in the new country. 2015, p. 39.
  42. ↑ The name in Latin letters from 1932 to 1939 was Hitachduth Olej Germania ( Hebrew הִתְאַחְדוּת עוֹלֵי גֶּרְמַנְיָה Hit'achdūt ʿŌlej Germanjah , German 'Vereinigung der Olim Deutschlands' , HOG; as in the title of Hitachduth Olej Germania's bulletin ), between 1940 and 1942 Hitachdut Olej Germania we Austria ( Hebrew הִתְאַחְדוּת עוֹלֵי גֶּרְמַנְיָה וְאוֹסְטְרִיָה Hit'achdūt ʿŌlej Germanjah we-Ōsṭrijah , German 'Association of Olim Germany and Austria' , acronym: HOGoA; see. Bulletin of Hitachdut Olej Germania we Austria ), then from 1943 to 2006 Irgun Olej Merkas Europa ( Hebrew אִרְגּוּן עוֹלֵי מֶרְכַּז אֵירוֹפָּה Irgūn ʿŌlej Merkaz Ejrōpah , German 'Organization of the Olim Central Europe' ; as in their organ: MB - weekly newspaper of Irgun Olej Merkas Europe ), since then the association has been called the Association of Israelis of Central European Origin ( Hebrew אִרְגּוּן יוֹצְאֵי מֶרְכַּז אֵירוֹפָּה Irgūn Jōtz'ej Merkaz Ejrōpah , German 'Organization of those from Central Europe' ; see. Title of the Yakinton / MB journal: Bulletin of the Association of Israelis of Central European Origin ).
  43. ↑ Lotte Norbert, quoted from Klaus Hillenbrand: Strangers in the New Land. 2015, p. 36.
  44. ^ Paul A. Aisberg: The organization of the Central European immigrants in Israel . The mentioned Moshe Brachmann (Shilo) came from Palestine and has been in the in Hameln nearby kibbutz Cheruth worked as a Hebrew teacher. He later accompanied a group of young people to Palestine. ( The Kibbutz Cheruth in the villages around Aerzen in the years 1926–1930 )
  45. ↑ The latest work on the topic of German-speaking immigration to Palestine from 1933 was published by Katharina Hoba in 2017: Generation in transition. Home processes of German Jews in Israel , Böhlau Verlag, Cologne / Weimar / Vienna 2017, ISBN 978-3-412-50562-2 .
  46. ↑ Gerda Luft investigates the reasons for this: Homecoming into the Unknown. A depiction of the immigration of Jews from Germany to Palestine from the rise of Hitler to power until the outbreak of the Second World War 1933–1939. Peter Hammer Verlag, Wuppertal 1977, ISBN 3-87294-106-2 .