Hachshara

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Work on the Hachschara farm in Betzenrod , Germany, 1920s

As Hachshara ( Hebrew הכשרה 'Preparation, making fit' ) was the term used to describe the systematic preparation of Jews for the aliyah , i.e. H. for the settlement of Palestine especially in the 1920s and 1930s. The ideological basis for this program was Zionism , which was supported and propagated by the Jewish youth movement , and especially by the two umbrella organizations Hechaluz and Bachad .

Most of the time, Hachshara courses took place on agricultural goods. A group of people willing to emigrate ( Hebrew קבוצה Kəvutza ) learned there together what seemed necessary for the development of a community in Palestine. The young people, who often come from bourgeois backgrounds, mainly acquired horticultural, agricultural and domestic as well as manual skills and learned Iwrit , modern Hebrew. In the further development of the hachshara, the creation of a Jewish identity was increasingly seen as an important task. This also included celebrating the Jewish festivals and learning about Jewish history and literature. Living and working as a collective should create the cultural basis for a new existence in Palestine. In later Israel , the hachshara communities continued in the kibbutzim . Individuals who wanted to emigrate learned less from a farmer or craftsman.

history

The Hachshara was formed at the end of the 19th century from the "Chalutz movement" (from Hebrew חלוץ Chaluz , German 'pioneer' ), especially among Jews in the USA and Russia . At the 12th Zionist Congress in Karlovy Vary in 1922 , the Hechaluz World Pioneer Association was formed . In 1923 a German Hechaluz Association was founded, which in 1928 had 500 members and four teaching materials. Overall, the movement spread slowly among the heavily assimilated Jews of Western Europe. It was only since the global economic crisis that many saw emigration as an opportunity for a fresh start. The idealistic attitude of early Zionism took a back seat.

The increasing discrimination against the Jews gave the Hachshara movement in the initial phase of the National Socialist rule in Germany great popularity. In addition to preparing to emigrate to Palestine, the fact that the hachshara was one of the last opportunities for them to obtain vocational training at all ( shifting in the language used at the time) played a role, especially for young Jews . In 1934 the German Hechaluz had around 15,000 members. Around 3,500 people were being trained in the hachshara teaching institutions at that time. These were looked after by Martin Gerson on behalf of the Reich Representation of the German Jews . A total of at least 32 of these preparatory camps were set up within the then German borders.

In the early years, the predominant form of training was the individual hachshara, in which those wishing to leave the country worked for a farmer or in a craft business and were supported and looked after by a hachshara or hechaluz center. With the increasing demand for apprenticeships from 1933 on, other forms of hachshara emerged, for example “hachshara kibbutzim, where the young people lived and were trained together, hachshara centers where they lived together, but training on various agricultural and handicrafts They got jobs - especially in larger cities - the Batei-Chaluz ( Sing. Beit Chaluz), dormitories for young people wishing to leave the country with individual craft or housekeeping training. The increased need for apprenticeships only partially explains the forced expansion of the communal Hachshara teaching materials in the following years, because this was also particularly important for ideological and educational reasons: Above all, here, detached from social and family ties, people believed education to be able to effectively realize the kibbutz community. "

Hachshara and youth aliyah were important pillars of Jewish self-help in preparing young people for emigration to Palestine. In 1935 there was the so-called Middle Hachshara (also: Mi-Ha ). It was aimed at 15 to 17-year-olds and, like the regular hachshara, provided for a two-year agricultural, horticultural or household training course. A craft training lasted three years. Joseph Walk describes it as a replacement for the young people of this age group who did not immigrate to Palestine through the youth aliyah . In her daily routine she is based on the example of the groups educated in the collective settlements there: the morning was reserved for technical, essentially agricultural (for girls: domestic) training, the afternoon for intellectual training. The curriculum included Hebrew (6 hours), Judaism and Judaism (2), geography (2), natural science (2); One hour each on Palestine Studies and Zionism. The debates and discussions held in the evening hours on days off, which primarily revolved around problems of the construction of Palestine, took up a large part of the space. The community that formed in the rural milieu was largely shaped by the personality of the leader who emerged from the youth movement and, after completing two years of training, mostly went to Aliyah with him. "

As the bearer of the Mi-Ha , Walk mentions the Noar Agudati ("youth of the Aguda") in addition to the already mentioned associations Hechaluz and Bachad . The was the German youth association of the ultra-orthodox Jewish Agudath Israel World Organization founded in 1912 . Kalman Kahana , who was involved in the founding of Noar Agudati in Germany, played an important role in this organization .

The foreign hachshara played a special role. It existed in ten European countries in the 1930s, mainly in the form of the single hachshara. Only the Werkdorp Wieringermeer in Holland was organized in the style of a Hachschara kibbutz. The foreign hachshara also offered the possibility of removing particularly vulnerable persons from the access of the National Socialist authorities. There were also youth alija centers abroad, for example the Kristinehov boarding school in Sweden. They offered the opportunity to accommodate young people for whom there were no entry certificates for Palestine. In addition to the institutions already mentioned, there were others in Romania, Lithuania, Northern Ireland, England, France, Luxembourg, Denmark, Russia and Switzerland as well as overseas (USA, Canada), where the origin of the movement lay.

Hachshara facilities

Memorial plaque , Selma-und-Paul-Latte-Platz, Berlin-Niederschönhausen

Hachshara institutions on the territory of the German Empire

Baden-Württemberg

  • The Markenhof was an early establishment that existed from 1919 to 1925. The Markenhof was owned by Konrad Goldmann , who had entrusted Alexander Moch with the management of the facility . Moch had received his training at the Israelite Horticultural School in Ahlem and headed the Neuendorf Landwerk from 1932 to 1940 .
  • Künzelsau . One institution here is mentioned by Ulrich Tromm with reference to a circular from the internship office of Blau-Weiss, Berlin, July 10, 1924. This facility was located in Berlichingen , which belongs to Künzelsau as part of Schöntal . In November 2014 there was an exhibition in the Catholic Church in Berlichingen on the subject of “Remembering - Jewish Citizens in Berlichingen”. In an article referring to this exhibition in the community letter of the Evangelical Church Community Schöntal of March 15, 2015 it says:

“1918 In August, the first federal meeting of the 'Zionist Youth League Blue-White' took place in Berlichingen. Groups came from all over Germany.

1920 After 1920 Simon Metzger (Lammwirt) and J. Baer from Künzelsau leased the Halsberg estate and ran a Hachschara, which was a training center for young Jews. "

Berlin

  • Training workshops for female craft. This facility, conceived as a work school, opened on November 10, 1920 at Meraner Strasse 11 in Berlin. Her target group were girls from the age of 14, who were supposed to be given practical training in designing and making embroidery and batik, making handicrafts and bookbinding. Since customer orders were to be taken on for this, there was also a modest source of income.
    There were also general classes with a focus on languages, with the emphasis on English and Hebrew. For the summer of 1921 it was planned to move the school to its own home in a suburb of Berlin, "where the older pupils should have the opportunity to learn housekeeping and some gardening."
  • An early institution here is listed by Ulrich Tromm with reference to the aforementioned circular from the internship office of Blau-Weiss, Berlin, July 10, 1924.
  • The bottle factory of Selma Latte and Paul Latte in Berlin-Niederschönhausen , on whose premises there was a Hachschara training company in the craft. The history of the former Hachscharah camp at Buchholzer Strasse 23–31 in the Niederschönhausen district is an example of the self-assertion of the Jewish population threatened by discrimination and marginalization.

Brandenburg

The following hachshara sites existed in Brandenburg

  • Alt-Karbe in the Neumark , today Poland (existed until 1940)
  • Landwerk Ahrensdorf near Trebbin (1936–1941)
  • Dragebruch (District Friedeberg Nm., Province of Brandenburg or from 1938 Province of Pomerania) (today: Drawiny )
  • Eichow , "Neue Feldschneidermühle", today Kolkwitz municipality , near Cottbus (until 1941)
  • Havelberg / Mark, Parola Hunting Farm (until 1941)
  • Heinersdorf bei Landsberg (Landsberg (Warthe) district, Brandenburg province) (today: Chwalęcice )
  • the agricultural estate of the Hirsch copper and brass works near Eberswalde
  • Half in the mark (until 1939). The Jewish learning settlement Halbe was founded in February 1920 by 8 male and 4 female members. It included 90 acres of land, 35 of which could be used for agriculture and 10 for gardening. The aim was to complete one to one and a half years of training as the basis for a life in Palestine. Halbe was the first attempt to “create a learning material based on a settlement”. This facility is also mentioned by Ulrich Tromm with reference to a circular from the internship office of Blau-Weiss, Berlin, July 10, 1924, and is attributed to the association.
    Halbe graduates failed in 1923 when attempting to found the Kwuza Zwi near Haifa .
  • Hachschara camp Jessen (also Jessen Mühle ) near Sorau in Niederlausitz : "One of the few who survived underground until liberation was the later TV presenter Hans Rosenthal , previously 'on Hachschara' in Jessen in Niederlausitz." from 1937)
  • Landwerk Neuendorf near Fürstenwalde (1932–1943)
  • Polenzwerder near Eberswalde (1937 to probably 1940)
  • Rüdnitz , Hof Wecker, near Bernau (until 1941) “In so-called Hachschara centers, the 14 to 17 year old Jewish youth who enrolled in the youth aliyah to leave Germany for Palestine were prepared for their life there . The Rüdnitz estate on the Berlin – Eberswalde railway line was the first preparation center. This was followed by Ahrensdorf near Trebbin, Schiebinchen (Sommerfeld / Niederlausitz), Polenzwerder near Eberswalde, Gut Winkel near Fürstenwalde, Kibbutz Rissen near Hamburg, Kibbutz Jägerlust near Flensburg, Gehringshof near Fulda. There were also youth aliyah schools in Cologne and Berlin. "
  • Schniebinchen near Sommerfeld, today part of the rural community of Gmina Lubomino (until 1941). Schniebinchen's last two directors , Alfred Cohn and Ludwig Kuttner, were previously teachers at the Kaliski private forest school in Berlin.
  • There were several Hachschara institutions in the area of ​​today's municipality of Spreenhagen :
    • Skaby (Beeskow district) primarily for young married couples (possibly until 1943)
    • Steckelsdorf Landwerk near Rathenow (1934–1942 / 43)
    • Good angle

Hamburg

By 1938, around 800 young people had completed their training in the Hamburg hachshara facilities.

  • Schalom Agricultural School in Neugraben . The school was an institution of the Bachad .
  • Youth hostel (Bet Chaluz) of Hechaluz in Beneckestrasse (since June 1932). "The Bet Chaluz in Beneckestrasse became a center of Jewish youth culture - and a special goal of the November pogrom of 1938."
  • Since June 1933 there have been apprenticeships in a carpentry shop in Emilienstrasse. and in the Wilhelminenhöhe settler school. The latter was discontinued in the spring of 1934 because of its Zionist orientation and instead a training course for gardeners was set up.
  • There were several support centers for the care of trainees over the age of 18:
    • Kibbutz Ejn Chajim ("Source of Life") in Hamburg-Rissen (from August 1933)
    • Kibbutz Schachal was an institution of the Bachad in the former villa of a Jewish dentist at Blankeneser Steubenweg 36 (today Grotiusweg 36)
    • Cherut-Charut
  • There were dormitories for participants in the Middle Hachschara in Schäferkampsallee (from February 1936) and in Klosterallee (from May 1937).
  • "The training workshops for carpenters and locksmiths in Weidenallee, which were set up by the German-Israelite community in March 1934, offered technical training ."
  • Since March 1934 there have been training courses for girls - mainly in practical housekeeping - "in the Jewish household school in cooperation with the Jewish technical school for tailors (Heimhuderstr.), Internal in the boarding school of the girls' orphanage (Laufgraben)".
  • Since May 1935 the Bachad ran a religious teaching school for girls in Johnsallee.
  • Since February 1935, the Noar Agudati also ran a training center for girls in Werderstrasse.

Hesse

Lower Saxony

  • Ahlem Israelite Horticultural School near Hanover , which was not originally oriented towards Zionism
  • Kibbutz Cheruth near Hameln “In 1926, the Hechaluz set up the first joint Hachschara site (Kibbutz-Hachschara) in Hameln, most of the participants were members of the Zionist youth association 'Brith Haolim'. The group gave itself the name 'Cheruth' (freedom), but the reference to Buber's speech 'Cheruth' from 1919 is controversial. In 1928 the first of the 'Cheruth' group emigrated and founded the Kibbutz Givʿat Brenner near Rechovot together with Chaluzim from Eastern Europe . "

North Rhine-Westphalia

East Prussia

  • Good Baugstkorallen

Schleswig-Holstein

  • Brüderhof near Harksheide . He was probably looked after by the Hechaluz from Hamburg. "The Brüderhof stopped its work in the spring of 1939."

Other hachshara institutions

  • A special feature was the so-called seafaring hachschara of the “ Fairplay Towing Steamship Reederei Richard Borchard GmbH ” of the Jewish shipowner Lucy Borchardt . “At the beginning of 1934, nautical training was also started for the fair play shipping company and later also for the Bernstein and Schindler shipping company. It was possible to place some apprentices in shipbuilding companies in Hamburg and Lübeck. They formed the personnel base of the merchant shipping in Palestine that was established in 1934. "

Forced labor instead of hachshara

From 1941 onwards , the Hachschara facilities in the German Reich were converted into forced labor camps for Jewish youths by the National Socialists, or they were closed entirely.

Institutions of the foreign hachshara

Great Britain

There were about 20 hachshara centers spread across the UK.

Yugoslavia

  • Subotica
    At least between 1937 and 1939 there was an estate here “which was run by the Zionist organization Hechaluz. Here the young men and women learned to cultivate the vineyard and the fields, to look after the animals and to run the farm. "

Netherlands

Sweden

  • Boarding school Kristinehov
  • Without mentioning any other names, Pontus Rudberg refers to "young Jews who have completed their agricultural retraining on Swedish farms".

Hachshara facilities after World War II

After the end of National Socialism, surviving Zionist Jews again founded Hachshara communities, which existed until the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948.

  • 30 facilities existed in Middle and Upper Franconia.
  • The Gehringshof was reactivated as the Buchenwald kibbutz .

literature

  • Georg Josephthal : Pedagogical and Emigration Policy Aspects of the Jewish Vocational Training Center in Germany . In: Jewish welfare and social policy . Sheets of the Central Welfare Office and the Department of Economic Aid at the Reich Representation of Jews in Germany. tape 8 , no. 1 , 1938, ZDB -ID 505021-2 , p. 1–8 , urn : nbn: de: 101: 1-2012120711908 ( Scan  - Internet Archive [accessed February 15, 2020]).
  • Irmgard Klönne, Ilana Michaeli (ed.): Gut Winkel, the protective island. Hachschara 1933–1941 (= German-Israeli library. Volume 3). LIT Verlag, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-8258-0441-1 .
  • Andreas Paetz, Karin Weiß (ed.): "Hachschara". Preparing young Jews for emigration to Palestine. Verlag für Berlin-Brandenburg, Potsdam 1999, ISBN 3-932981-50-2 .
  • Michael Winkelmann: The Hachsharah in Külte. In: Renate Knigge-Tesche, Axel Ulrich (ed.): Persecution and resistance in Hessen. 1933-1945. Eichborn, Frankfurt 1996, ISBN 3-8218-1735-6 , pp. 102-112.
  • Ulrike Pilarczyk: Community in Pictures. Jewish youth movement and Zionist educational practice in Germany and Palestine / Israel (= Hamburg contributions to the history of German Jews. Volume XXXV). Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen 2009, ISBN 978-3-8353-0439-0 ( igdj-hh.de [PDF; 6.9 MB]).
  • Barbara Rösch: Jewish history and culture in Brandenburg . Teachers' handout for primary schools. Universitätsverlag Potsdam, Potsdam 2008, ISBN 978-3-940793-38-6 , urn : nbn: de: kobv: 517-opus-27294 (219 pages, uni-potsdam.de [PDF; 2.1 MB ; accessed on February 15, 2020] here: PDF from April 26, 2009, changed on November 3, 2009).
  • Werner Rosenstock: Exodus 1933 to 1939. An overview of the Jewish emigration from Germany. In: Robert Weltsch (Ed.): German Judaism, Rise and Crisis. Design, ideas, works. Fourteen monographs. Publication by the Leo Baeck Institute . Deutsche Verlagsanstalt, Stuttgart 1963, pp. 380–405 (first in English: Exodus 1933–1939. A survey of Jewish Emigration from Germany. In: Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook [LBY]. Jg. 1, 1956, pp. 373–390 ; English also as a separate print).
  • Joseph Walk: Jewish School and Education in the Third Reich. Verlag Anton Hain, Frankfurt am Main 1991, ISBN 3-445-09930-8 .
  • Museum Pankow (ed.): "A busy life began on Mr. Latte's premises". The Latte bottle factory and the training of Jewish emigrants in Berlin-Niederschönhausen . Hentrich & Hentrich Verlag, Berlin / Leipzig 2020, ISBN 978-3-95565-377-4 .

Sources and web links

Commons : Hachshara  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Ulrike Pilarczyk: Community in Pictures. 2009, p. 107.
  2. ↑ Ulrike Pilarczyk: Community in Pictures. 2009, p. 108.
  3. ↑ Joseph Walk: Jewish School and Education in the Third Reich. 1991, p. 155.
  4. ↑ Shaul Banay: Rabbi K. Kahane - PAI Leader. In: toviapreschel.com. February 7, 1964, accessed February 15, 2020 .
  5. ^ Ulrich Tromm: The Markenhof near Freiburg im Breisgau as Zionist emigrant teaching material 1919–1925. In: stegen-dreisamtal.de, Heimatgeschichtlicher Arbeitskreis Stegen, accessed on March 10, 2020. -
    Press release (PDF; 126 kB) on the exhibition Landwerk Neuendorf. Jewish Hachshara and forced labor camp Neuendorf im Sande 1932–1943. In: Kulturerbe.com, April 18, 2016, accessed on March 10, 2020.
  6. ↑ a b c d 2nd circular from the internship office of the Blau-Weiss (see sources ).
  7. ↑ Community letter of the Evangelical Church Community Schöntal. March 15, 2015, p. 19.
  8. ↑ Anneliese Hohenstein: Report on the training workshops for female craft. In: Blau-Weiss-Blätter: Führerzeitung. Edited by the federal leadership of the Jewish Wanderbünde Blau-Weiss. Issue 3 (December 1920–1921), pp. 54–55 ( uni-frankfurt.de [PDF-S. 24–25]).
  9. ↑ werkstatt denkmal 2016: The former Hachschara and training center in Pankow-Niederschönhausen. (PDF; 564 kB) In: denk-mal-an-berlin.de. September 4, 2016, accessed February 15, 2020 . Memorial and information stele on Selma and Paul Latte and the redeployment point in Niederschönhausen 1934–1941. In: berlin.de. Museum Pankow , June 17, 2016, accessed February 15, 2020 . Museum Pankow: Hachscharah and training centers in Niederschönhausen. In: berlin.de. June 21, 2016, accessed on February 15, 2020 (English, more detailed and with reference to further materials).
  10. ↑ Template for information for the district assembly according to § 15 BezVG. Re: Designation of a public square in the Niederschönhausen district in "Selma- und Paul-Latte-Platz". In: berlin.de. April 13, 2016, accessed February 15, 2020 .
  11. ↑ The following compilation follows - if no other sources are named - the publication by Barbara Rösch: Jüdische Geschichte und Kultur in Brandenburg . Teachers' handout for primary schools. Universitätsverlag Potsdam, Potsdam 2008, ISBN 978-3-940793-38-6 , p. 174–175 , urn : nbn: de: kobv: 517-opus-27294 ( uni-potsdam.de [PDF; 2.1 MB ; accessed on February 15, 2020] here: PDF from April 26, 2009, changed on November 3, 2009).
  12. ^ A b c Hubertus Fischer: Hachschara in der Neumark: Altkarbe, Dragebruch and Heinersdorf. Three little-known Jewish agricultural training centers in the early years of the Nazi dictatorship. In: Landesgeschichtliche Vereinigung für die Mark Brandenburg e. V. (Ed.): Bulletin. 119 (3), 2018, ISSN  1867-5085 , pp. 135-153.
  13. ↑ A detailed description of this can be found in Barbara Rösch: Jüdische Geschichte und Kultur in Brandenburg . Teachers' handout for primary schools. Universitätsverlag Potsdam, Potsdam 2008, ISBN 978-3-940793-38-6 , p. 175 , urn : nbn: de: kobv: 517-opus-27294 ( uni-potsdam.de [PDF; 2.1 MB ; accessed on February 15, 2020] here: PDF from April 26, 2009, changed on November 3, 2009).
  14. ^ Friedrich von Borries , Jens-Uwe Fischer: Heimatcontainer. German prefabricated houses in Israel. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt 2009, p. 64 f .; see. furthermore: Katharina Hoba: Gut Winkel - Spreenhagen in the Mark. In: Irmgard Klönne, Ilana Michaeli (ed.): Gut Winkel, the protective island. Hachshara 1933-1941. LIT Verlag, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-8258-0441-1 , p. 250 f.
  15. ↑ Max Hirsch: Report on the Jewish settlement of Halbe. In: Blau-Weiss-Blätter: Führerzeitung. Edited by the federal leadership of the Jewish Wanderbünde Blau-Weiss. Issue 3 (December 1920–1921), p. 49 ( uni-frankfurt.de [PDF-p. 19]).
  16. ↑ Ulrich Tromm: The Markenhof as Zionist emigration training course 1919–1925, in: Andreas Paetz / Karin Weiss (eds.): "Hachschara". The preparation of young Jews for emigration to Palestine , Verlag für Berlin-Brandenburg, Potsdam 1999, ISBN 3-932981-50-2 , p. 12
  17. ^ Ivonne Meybohm: Education for Zionism. The Jewish Wanderbund Blau-Weiß as an attempt to put the program of the Jewish Renaissance into practice , Peter Lang Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2009, ISBN 978-3-631-58481-1 , pp. 100-103
  18. ↑ Verena Buser: Fire on the estate: Hachschara camps for emigrants also fell victim to the pogroms. In: Jüdische Allgemeine . November 7, 2013, accessed February 15, 2020 .
  19. ↑ The Neuendorf Landwerk goes into detail: Horst Helas: Landwerk Neuendorf im Sande and Gut Winkel, Martin Gerson and Clara Grunwald - a Fürstenwalder story. (PDF; 38 kB) In: rosalux.de . January 28, 2005, accessed January 28, 2019 .
  20. ↑ Rainer Horn: Rüdnitzer Hachschara as a station on the run from the persecution of the Jews: Fates in Bad Times. In: moz.de . November 19, 2014, accessed February 15, 2020 .
  21. ^ The Youth Aliyah: From Nazi Germany to Palestine, from the Holocaust to Israel. In: its-arolsen.org . September 26, 2017. Retrieved January 17, 2018 .
  22. ↑ From the collections of the Jewish Museum Berlin: Young people in the Hachschara camp Schniebinchen near Sommerfeld (photography)
  23. ↑ Biographical notes on Cohn and Kuttner see The Jewish teaching staff of PriWaKi .
  24. ↑ Ezra BenGershôm: David. Survivor's Notes. Fischer, Frankfurt 1994, ISBN 3-596-11700-3 , pp. 111-199 (Chapter: In a Palestine preparatory school ). The buildings are almost completely preserved today.
  25. ↑ Katharina Hoba: The Winkel Gut - Spreenhagen in the Mark . In: Irmgard Klönne, Ilana Michaeli (ed.): Gut Winkel - the protective island . Hachschara 1933–1941 (=  German-Israeli library . Volume 3 ). LIT Verlag, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-8258-0441-1 , p. 249-274 . -
    Karin Weiss, Andreas Paetz u. a .: Hachschara in Brandenburg - The preparation of young Jews to leave Germany. An interdisciplinary multimedia publication from the Potsdam University of Applied Sciences. (No longer available online.) In: forge.fh-potsdam.de. University of Applied Sciences Potsdam , 1996, archived from the original on July 4, 2018 ; accessed on January 28, 2019 . On the     Good angle Horst Helas is one detail: A Fürstenwalder history. In: rosalux.de, accessed on January 28, 2019 (PDF; 38 kB).
  26. ↑ a b c d e f g Hachshara. In: The Jewish Hamburg. Retrieved February 14, 2020 . All information on Hamburg is based on this publication, unless other sources are named.
  27. ↑ Hachshara. In: Kirsten Heinsohn (Red.): The Jewish Hamburg. A historical reference work. Edited by the Institute for the History of German Jews. Wallstein-Verlag, Göttingen 2006, ISBN 3-8353-0004-0 , p. 102 ff.
  28. ↑ Oliver Törner: From the kibbutz life in Hamburg. In: Hamburger Abendblatt . October 19, 1999, accessed February 15, 2020 .
  29. ^ Rolf Starck: Speech at the memorial ceremony at Grotiusweg 36; July 17, 2011. (PDF; 76 kB) In: viermalleben.de. Retrieved January 29, 2019 .
  30. ↑ There is also an article Betzenrod (Eiterfeld) ; but the history of the Hachshara site is only presented in the article on Eiterfeld. More material can be found on the page The Synagogue in Neuhof. In: Alemannia Judaica , accessed April 7, 2020.
  31. ↑ The Lohnberghütte is mentioned as the fourth Hessian Hachschara site on the Grüsen page . In: Alemannia Judaica , accessed April 7, 2020.
  32. ↑ Thomas Dörr: Goral-Sternheim, Aria. In: The Jewish Hamburg . Retrieved February 15, 2020 .
  33. ↑ Meike Sophia Baader, Helga Kelle, Elke Kleinau (eds.): Educational stories. Gender, Religion and Education in the Modern Age. Böhlau Verlag, Cologne / Weimar / Vienna 2006, ISBN 3-412-33405-7 , p. 32 (note 16).
  34. ^ Gisbert Strotdrees : A kibbutz in Westphalia. In: juedische-allgemeine.de . January 22, 2015, accessed February 15, 2020 .
  35. ↑ Hachshara training at Gut Baugstkorallen around 1933 . The article is based on material from the archives of Kibbutz Hazorea.
  36. ↑ Ina Lorenz: Lucy Borchardt. In: Kirsten Heinsohn (Red.): The Jewish Hamburg. A historical reference work. Published by the Institute for the History of German Jews. Wallstein-Verlag, Göttingen 2006, ISBN 3-8353-0004-0 , p. 40.
  37. ↑ Martin Gilbert: They were the boys. The story of 732 young Holocaust survivors. Verlag für Berlin-Brandenburg, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-86650-222-2 , p. 330.
  38. ↑ Kim Wünschmann: Palestine as a place of refuge for European Jews until 1945. Federal Agency for Civic Education , September 16, 2014, accessed on February 15, 2020 .
  39. ^ Pontus Rudberg: Sweden and Jewish Refugees from Nazi Germany, 1933-1939. In: International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (Ed.): Bystanders, Rescuers or Perpetrators? The Neutral Countries and the Shoah. Metropol Verlag & IHRA, Berlin 2016, ISBN 978-3-86331-287-9 , pp. 65–76 ( holocaustremembrance.sharepoint.com [PDF; 12.1 MB; accessed February 15, 2020]).
  40. ↑ Jim G. Tobias: The kibbutz on the Streicher farm. The forgotten history of the Jewish collective farms 1945–1948. Antogo, Nürnberg 1997, ISBN 3-9806636-1-2 .