Schools in exile

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Schools in exile were mainly founded after 1933 by teachers and educators who had to leave Germany for political reasons or because of their Jewish descent . All over the world they founded more than 20 educational institutions, often boarding schools, most of which were in the tradition of reform pedagogy and rural education centers. There were at least seven such foundations in Great Britain alone, but the establishment of the schools in exile did not begin in 1938/1939 as a result of the Kindertransporte , but immediately after the National Socialist seizure of power in 1933. The schools in exile differed from one another conceptually and organizationally in several ways , and not only in Great Britain, but they all had a common task: to support the uprooted refugee children in developing a new identity in an environment that was unfamiliar to them and to prepare them for a (survival) life abroad. In addition to the care and education of the children, the schools in exile had another important function: They offered jobs for German emigrants, for pedagogically trained people as well as for academics in general and thus made a contribution to their economic survival abroad .

The expulsion of progressive education from Germany

During the Weimar period, a reform-oriented pedagogy had developed in Germany, which ranged from the more bourgeois-oriented reform pedagogy to a socialist-oriented educational movement. All of these approaches were largely destroyed within Germany after 1933. Only the Jewish country school homes were a place of internal emigration for reform-pedagogical approaches "in the tradition of the liberal wing of the rural education movement " until about 1938 , while otherwise only exile offered itself as a place where they could be preserved and further developed. At a high price, however: the expulsion of the protagonists of these educational ideas from Germany. The protagonists of the schools in exile were very often Jewish pedagogues, some of whom emigrated with entire school classes or schools. They were joined by academics who had been expelled from German universities. Their pupils either came from families already living in emigration or were taken abroad as a precaution by their parents who were still living in Germany in order to protect them from the increasing marginalization and repression in Germany. Due to the threatened existential situation, they all found themselves mostly in schools in the tradition of the rural education homes, because this was the easiest way to run the schools inexpensively and to include both the student body and the teaching staff in this self-management. "Education for people and for social responsibility" as one of the educational maxims could thus be developed from everyday school life and did not remain an abstract educational goal. In their respective host country, the schools in exile tried to present themselves as ambassadors of the “true” German culture, which was not always easy because the arm of fascist Germany extended to many host countries or there were strong German colonies there. Nevertheless, "some schools demonstrated a specific self-image, made contributions to the solution of educational problems in the host country and managed to survive - albeit with considerable changes in some cases - for the long term or even to the present day".

The conditions were very different in the individual exile countries. Exiles were rarely welcomed, and the spectrum ranges from ignorance to total rejection. In the following sections, a brief outline of the conditions for emigrants there is given for each country. That must be cursory. For more detailed country analyzes, reference is made to the book Handbuch der Deutschensprachigen Emigration 1933–1945 .

Argentina

Even if Argentina was the last state in the world to declare war on Germany in March 1945: “The military, powerful in Argentina, sympathized with the Axis powers, that is, Germany and its allies, and prevented the Allies from entering the war. After all, there was an almost 100-year tradition of collaboration between the Argentine military and the German model. The Argentine air force was built up largely by German experts, so the Argentine military junta was extremely pro-German. ”And at the latest after the military coup in 1943, one can speak of Argentina as a pro-fascist country. In addition, there were many German emigrants from the 19th and 20th centuries in Argentina, a "German colony" that strongly sympathized with the German Empire. Nevertheless, around 40,000 Jews fled to Argentina during the Nazi era, as did people who were shown to be in opposition to National Socialism in Germany. The teaching staff of the Pestalozzi School in Buenos Aires was recruited from them.

Pestalozzi School, Buenos Aires

The Pestalozzi School is largely due to the commitment of Dr. Thanks to Ernesto Alemann, a Swiss who published the Argentinisches Tageblatt . Through this newspaper he led a long journalistic struggle against fascism, which in 1938 earned him the revocation of the doctorate he had acquired in Heidelberg by the then Heidelberg rector Ernst Krieck . Aleman was committed to the school, which was run by the Pestalozzi Society, founded in 1934, both ideally and financially. As a teacher, he only engaged anti-fascists from the left spectrum, most of whom were close to the SAPD or the International Socialist Combat League (ISK).

The Pestalozzi School survived the period of exile and celebrated its 80th anniversary in 2014. Today it presents itself on its website as an “excellent German school abroad”.

Chile

The ethnic Germans and Germans living abroad who lived in Chile came under the influence of National Socialism early in the 1930s, and associations, schools, newspapers and parishes were brought into line. Nevertheless, there were no major conflicts between these Chileans of German origin and the German-speaking emigrants who were gradually coming into the country, but also almost no contacts. The political environment for the emigrants was tolerable under the Popular Front government at the time , and in 1937 there was even a debate in the Chilean Chamber of Deputies about the National Socialist activities in Chile and their effects on German schools in the country.

However, a school in exile that can be traced back to German emigrants was not founded in Chile. However, a German-speaking school was founded outside of the National Socialist sphere of influence. The initiative for this came from Swiss parents. They founded the Swiss School Association in 1938 - as a split from the Nazi-influenced German school - which opened the Swiss school in Santiago de Chile on April 3, 1939. Classes initially took place outdoors before a villa could be built on the premises of the Swiss Club and then a house for a primary school could be bought. The first 12 students, the number of which increased to almost 70 in the next few years, including mostly Swiss children and only a few German children, were initially taught by only one teacher; until 1936 he worked at the Swiss school in Barcelona. The school should “maintain the free and democratic Swiss tradition” and still exists today.

Denmark

Denmark was not a preferred country of exile for German refugees because of its foreign policy and its political considerations towards the powerful neighboring country Germany.

Nevertheless, from 1933 to 1938 Denmark offered a reasonably safe exile for the Walkemühle rural education home, which was forcibly closed in Germany .

School home Östrupgaard

The history of the Östrupgaard school home and its successor institution, the school on the manor at Butcombe Court near Bristol, goes back a long way into the history of the rural education centers in Germany and is closely linked to the names of Leonard Nelson and Minna Specht as well as the work of the International Socialist League (ISK ) . All three schools cannot be viewed independently of each other, despite the different countries in which they worked. They form a continuum in the implementation of pedagogical-philosophical ideas that go back to Leonard Nelson and were first transformed into practice in the fulling mill .

France

For many Germans, especially for artists and intellectuals, France was a preferred emigration destination after the National Socialist seizure of power. However, it was not an easy country of asylum because the conditions within France, the effects of the global economic crisis, high unemployment, and later the influx of refugees from the Spanish civil war , led to increasing restrictions on refugees. This situation deteriorated dramatically after the invasion of the German armed forces and the occupation of Paris in June 1940.

While the life of the refugees in France was often a material struggle for survival before the German invasion, it now turned into a physical struggle for survival, which in the best case led via the camps in the south, Gurs , Rivesaltes or Le Vernet , and Marseille to a non-European country of exile, in the worst case via Drancy to an extermination camp in the east. Anna Segher's great novel Transit is an impressive memorial to all these struggles for survival.

There were not many German refugees who were able to survive the Nazi era in France, and there were even fewer who actively participated in the resistance against fascism. One of them is Pitt Krüger, who built La Coûme together with his French wife Yvès and in collaboration with the Quakers .

La Coûme (Krüger Foundation)

La Coûme is the name of an exile school for young German refugees that was set up in the Pyrenees in late autumn 1933. It is named after the property on which it was built, Mas de la Coûme. Its founders - with the support of the English Quakers - were the married couple Pitt and Yvès Krüger, after Pitt Krüger had been dismissed from German schooling in 1933 and forced to emigrate. Initially planned as an institution that should help young German refugees to get an agricultural education, La Coûme was later converted into an international youth hostel and then into a school that was strongly influenced by the reform-pedagogical rural education centers in Germany. In 1975 the Krüger couple gave La Coûme to a charitable foundation, the Krüger Foundation, which continues to run the school.

La Coûme as a reform pedagogical project was able to survive because it was located in the elementary school sector, which was not so heavily regulated by the centralized administration of France and thus enabled greater scope for school innovations. In the secondary sector, on the other hand, the “extreme separation between the two pillars of a lower and higher school system, which existed side by side as class-specific systems”, came into full effect and made reform approaches difficult or impossible. Failure to take this into account led to the failure of Fritz Karsen's attempt to set up a private international day secondary school, the École nouvelle de Boulogne , after his expulsion from the Karl Marx School in Berlin near Paris .

Ecole Nouvelle de Boulogne, Boulogne-sur-Seine near Paris

The École nouvelle de Boulogne was a private international day secondary school founded in 1934 by the German emigrants Fritz Karsen , Karl Linke and Walter Damus . They had all previously worked at the Karl-Marx-Schule (Berlin-Neukölln) and were expelled from their offices there by the Nazis. The school struggled to establish itself in the French educational system and only existed until 1937.

Great Britain

It was not easy to find asylum in Great Britain as a refugee from Nazi Germany. For example, the British authorities required a guarantor who had to provide £ 50 (just under £ 2,500 or € 3,200 in today's currency) as security that a refugee would not become a burden on the British state. The authorities also accepted entry if a refugee could prove employment in Great Britain - provided that the position sought could not be filled by a local person. This meant that employment opportunities were mainly in the service sector, as butlers, housekeeping staff or cooks. The entitled persons, the refugee domestic servants , received the so-called domestic permit or domestic work permit as an entry permit . "This explains an above-average proportion of women among exiles in Great Britain".

Despite these hurdles, between sixty and seventy thousand refugees from Germany and Austria found refuge in Great Britain in 1939. They were predominantly, but not exclusively, Jewish. The annexation of Austria to the German Reich on March 11, 1938 and the pogrom night on November 9, 1938 ensured a further influx of refugees to Great Britain, including through the Kindertransporte .

The situation for the German refugees became problematic after the occupation of France by the German Wehrmacht and the associated fear of an invasion of Great Britain. Fear of a German “fifth column” prompted the British government to declare German and Italian refugees to be enemy aliens . Several temporary camps were set up for them. The main camp was on the Isle of Man , men and women were interned there and elsewhere in separate quarters, and a significant proportion of the men were deported to Canada and Australia. These overseas deportations had fatal consequences for several hundred people. During the transfer of internees to Canada, the ship - the Arandora Star - was sunk by the German submarine U 47 . Several hundred German and Italian prisoners drowned on board the Arandora Star , including the former Berlin city councilor and KPD politician Karl Olbrysch and his partner. Others, like Franz Eichenberg , got lucky and were rescued by a Canadian destroyer.

Jennifer Taylor rightly points to the role of the Quakers as one of the most active groups in rescuing refugees from the continent.

Some of the subsequent schools in British exile were only able to gain a foothold in Great Britain and continue their educational work there because of this support. On the other hand, Great Britain was also "the land of private schools", which encouraged the establishment of schools. There were only a few requirements for their operation.

Beltane School, Wimbledon

In the writings of Hildegard Feidel-Mertz, the Beltane School is associated with the name Ernst Bulova, but both his role and the history of the school remain pale. Ernst Bulova and his wife Ilse were both pioneers of Montessori education in Berlin and had to emigrate in 1933. How they got to Beltane School is unclear, including the role they played there. The reference that Ernst Bulova was co-director of the school is almost the most concrete.

In 1940 the Bulovas were interned and then moved to the USA. There they founded their real life's work in 1942/43, Buck's Rock Work Camp . This in turn is only mentioned in a subordinate clause in Feidel-Mertz. Both institutions are presented in the article on Ernst Bulova.

Feidel-Mertz says that the Bulovas brought 30 German and Austrian emigrant children with them to the school. Little is known about their existence or about the 23 teachers who taught at the school in 1937. The only exception: Ulrich K. Goldsmith , who from 1934 worked as a language teacher for Latin, German and English at the Beltane School.

Bunce Court School (New Herrlingen), Otterden (Kent)

From 1933 the Bunce Court School was the exile of the Landschulheims Herrlingen near Ulm founded by Anna Essinger and her sister Klara in 1926 . The part of the school that could not emigrate with them was continued under the direction of Hugo Rosenthal on the grounds of the Landschulheim as the Jewish Landschulheim Herrlingen .

The Bunce Court School has also become known as the New Herrlingen School.

After the Alpine school home on the Vigiljoch was forced to close by the Italian race laws ( leggi razziali ) at the end of 1938, some of the students moved to the Bunce Court School together with the two teachers Hanna Bergas and Hellmut Schneider.

Anna Essinger, employees of the school and also pupils helped to look after the children who had come to England on the Kindertransport .

The school was evacuated during the Second World War. It returned to its old location in Kent in 1946, but had to cease operations in 1948. The mission to be a safe haven for refugee children was accomplished.

Butcombe Court near Bristol

Butcombe Court was - after a first exile in Denmark - the last station in exile of the Walkemühle Landerziehungsheim .

Camphill School, Aberdeen (Scotland)

The Camphill School in Aberdeen is a home school for handicapped children and adolescents that can be traced back to the Austrian doctor and remedial teacher Karl König, whose work is based on Rudolf Steiner's anthroposophy .

The institution founded in March 1939 after fleeing the German Reich still exists today and is part of the Camphill movement that emerged from it and operates worldwide .

Gordonstoun, Elgin (Scotland)

The international private school Gordonstoun , which still exists today, was founded in 1934 by the reform pedagogue Kurt Hahn , who fled from Germany and who was the co-founder and long-time director of the Schloss Salem school .

Stoatley Rough School, Haslemere (Surrey)

The Stoatley Rough School was founded in 1934 by Hilde Lion with the support of Quaker Bertha Bracey . The school existed until 1960 and was largely shaped by women who were active in the liberal women's movement in Germany in the 1920s.

Theydon Bois School, Theydon Bois near London

The Theydon Bois School was a relatively late establishment by emigrants for emigrant children. It was created in 1943 in the context of the Free German League of Culture in Great Britain (Freier Deutscher Kulturbund in Great Britain) and is firmly anchored in their political activities. Among the schools in exile , Theydon Bois School is one of those whose educational work is still the least researched and documented.

St. Mary's Town and Country School, London

The St. Mary's School are found in Hildegard Feidel-Mertz 'publications and archives, although they are far stronger than the Beltane School by two German immigrants, Elisabeth and Heinz Paul has been coined. Elisabeth Paul, née Selver, was the daughter of a former Darmstadt rabbi, literary scholar with only brief teaching experience at the private forest school Kaliski . Heinz Paul was a trained high school teacher with teaching experience at Max Bondy's Landerziehungsheim Schule Marienau . In 1936 both emigrated from Berlin to England, where they married in 1937 and took over St. Mary's School , which had been founded a few years earlier . This school, which saw itself as non-denominational, co-educational and educational reform, existed until 1982. Its students included many children from artistic and diplomatic circles, but also children who had come to England as refugees from the German Reich .

Refuge for children and young people of the Kindertransporte

Most of the schools presented here and researched by Hildegard Feidel-Mertz follow in the footsteps of the pedagogy that was pushed out of Germany by the Nazis. For this reason, the displaced teachers were always involved in the establishment of corresponding institutions in exile, although it was less clear with the students. In very many cases, children of emigrants were the preferred target group, also because of the mostly desired preservation of the cultural heritage, but in many cases the schools were also attended by students from the host country.

By the Kindertransport , the situation changed. Suddenly thousands of children and young people came to Great Britain and needed a place to stay. In many cases this happened on a private level, through being accepted into families, and schools like the Bunce Court School were also very involved here. But that was not always enough, and so facilities had to be created where a larger number of children and young people on the Kindertransport could be accommodated and taught. Two of them are the following two: “Whittingehame Farm School and The Millisle Farm are some examples of where some of the Kinder found refuge. These homes were also places where the children were taught agricultural techniques. "

However, these farm schools were not only an addition to the family accommodation for the refugee children, they were also a conscious alternative. Rebekka Göpfert, who mentions some of these little-known institutions in Germany, outlines the political background that played a role in the founding of the farms and highlights the different interests of the organizations that look after the Jewish refugee children - children and youth aliyah and Refugee Children's Movement (RCM), the organizational backbone of Kindertransporte .

“In contrast to the RCM, Youth Aliyah opposed the placing of the children in foster families, including Jewish ones, because such placement would not adequately prepare them for a life in the kibbutz in Palestine. For this reason, farms were acquired or leased specifically for this purpose, on which the children would work. Since the capacity of these farms was insufficient to accommodate all the children, individual children were distributed to English farms, which were as close as possible to each other, so that a friendly program could be organized in the evenings and on weekends. There were around 20 hachshara centers spread across Great Britain (although these were not only populated with children, but also with young people over the age of 17 and adults). The most famous and probably the largest house of this type was Wittingehame House . [..] Other centers to be mentioned were Great Engham Farm School and Pine Trees, both in Kent, Hale Nurseries near Bournemouth, and Landough Castle in Wales near Cardiff and Gwtych Castle in North Wales. In Northern Ireland there were Clonin Castle and Millisle Farm, but they were soon closed again due to transport difficulties. When the war broke out, the two camps in Kent also had to be closed because the children housed there were in the proscribed area that was illegal for enemy aliens (as they were initially considered), i.e. they lived too close to England's south coast. The Bydown, located further inland, was opened to relieve the pressure. "

The farm training was subordinate to the preparation for emigration to Palestine . The acquisition of the Hebrew language and the practical and theoretical acquisition of basic craft and agricultural knowledge were therefore important. In addition, the lessons took place in the usual English school subjects.

For the children, the education - depending on their age - was associated with more or less hard work on their own farm or on a neighboring farm. In addition to the pure training purpose, this field work also served to secure one's own supply.

An important part of the concept behind the youth farms was also to ensure the psychological well-being of the children and young people. This was the goal of joint events and activities in the evening and at the weekend, whereby the aim was always to counteract the loss of home and the parental home with positive experiences and feelings. Göpfert assumes “that the emotional care of the children in such a home was generally more intense or warm-hearted than in English families.

Whittingehame Farm School (Whittingehame House), Stenton (East Lothian / Scotland)

Whittingehame Farm School existed from January 1939 to September 1941. Its primary goal was to train male and female youths for agricultural activities in Palestine .

Millisle Farm

Millisle Farm was a farm in Northern Ireland . From May 1938 until the closure in 1948, around 300 Jewish children and young people were housed and trained there, who could be brought out of the German Reich as refugees on the Kindertransport and brought to safety in Great Britain. In 1946, children who had survived the Auschwitz concentration camp also found refuge on the farm for a short time .

Italy

By the time the National Socialists came to power, Italy had long been a fascist state . And yet - at least until the end of 1938 - it was also a relatively safe country of exile for Jewish and non-Jewish refugees from Germany. There was political reprisals in Italy, but there was still no open persecution of Jews, German citizens did not need a visa and were able to transfer funds from Germany to Italy for a long time. This provided the conditions for parents who were still living in Germany to be able to get their children out of Germany with a view to later emigrating. Educational institutions were set up in Italy for these children, which were also intended to prepare them for a life in emigration. There was generally no shortage of teaching staff for these institutions because many academics studying or already doing research in Italy stayed in Italy or fled here after the National Socialist seizure of power. For many of them, however, Italy was just a transit country on the way to a better professional future in Great Britain or the USA.

The existence of the German schools in exile in Italy became more and more difficult in the course of the political rapprochement between Germany and Italy. It was withdrawn from them with the "Law for the Protection of the Italian Race" of September 17, 1938, which was passed along the lines of the German model. The law threatened to expel all Jews who immigrated to Italy after 1919 and gave them only a half-year transition period.

Country school home in Florence

The rural school center in Florence was founded by two non-educators: the journalist Moritz Goldstein and Werner Peiser , the Ministerialrat in the Prussian Ministry of Education, who was dismissed in 1933 . Until its closure in the late summer of 1938, the rural school home in Florence was the largest German school in exile in Italy.

School on the Mediterranean Sea, Recco (Liguria)

The two pedagogues, Hans Weil and Heinz Guttfeld , who previously taught at the rural school home in Florence, founded the school on the Mediterranean Sea in the spring of 1934

Alpine school home on the Vigiljoch, Lana (South Tyrol)

After the school was forced to close at the end of 1938 by the Italian racial legislation, some of the students moved to the Bunce Court School (New Herrlingen) in Otterden (Kent) together with the two teachers Hanna Bergas and Hellmut Schneider .

The Jewish schools in exile on Lake Garda

The two schools on Lake Garda,

  • Casa Vita Nuova, Jewish Home of Education , in Toscolano-Maderno and
  • Alice Jacobis School on Lake Garda in Gardone Riviera,

were presented together in one article due to insufficient sources:

Netherlands

“The Dutch authorities were accommodating. Reichsschulinspektor Bolkenstein was intensely committed to the needs of the school. The reform school, the 'Werkplaats', was founded by Kees Boeke in Bilthoven under his responsibility and set new educational standards. His successor van Andel also had good contacts with the school. "As much courtesy as Feidel-Mertz attests to the Quaker School in Eerde was not a matter of course in the Netherlands - especially not on the part of the conservative governments from 1933 onwards:" The domestic policy course was not only anti-socialist but also anti-social; In terms of foreign policy, a course of strict neutrality was pursued, especially towards Germany, with which extensive economic relations were maintained and which was valued for its policies of 'peace and order', 'anti-Bolshevism' and 'anti-anarchism', and which was only disapproved of behind closed doors for its racial policy. “The relationship with the German emigrants was correspondingly prejudiced:“ The 'political' refugees were consistently regarded as potential troublemakers. ”

The first wave of refugees from Germany between March and September 1933 was rather informal. The refugees pretended to be tourists, saying that they were visiting relatives or passing through. They rarely reported to the Aliens Police, which in turn only granted temporary residence permits from 1935 onwards, while on the other hand “the number of expulsions for undesirable political activities, for lack of funds or for illegal residence” rose steadily. Even Willy Brandt escaped in 1934 only about his extradition to the Gestapo. The aim of Dutch policy was not to grant refugees permanent residence because it was assumed that the Nazi ghost would soon disappear. Many Jews thought so too. There were also concerns that taking in refugees could provoke the Germans to continue to force the expulsion of German Jews, which could then intensify the pressure in the Netherlands. "

The Dutch state also refrained from supporting the refugees and, in the case of the Jews, even insisted that it was up to the Dutch Jews to look after their co-religionists. At the same time, however, opportunities for legal work were curtailed, and refugees who were still allowed to work often had to make do with low services and very poor pay.

After Austria was annexed to the German Reich, the Netherlands could no longer ignore the fact that there were now valid reasons for asylum, especially for Jewish refugees. Camps were set up to accommodate them, including the Westerbork camp , which in turn was financed by the Jews. Even if it was not foreseeable in February 1939, when the camps were set up, during the German invasion of the Netherlands in May 1940, the SS found an infrastructure, including inmates, largely financed by the Jews themselves, through which they and them she could carry out her criminal policy. For many students at the Quaker School in Eerde, Westerbork was the last Dutch stop before the extermination camps in the east.

Quaker school Eerde near Ommen

The Quaker School Eerde was founded in 1934 by German, Dutch and British Quakers in order to offer refuge and the opportunity for a qualified school education, especially in Germany, to Jewish children at risk.

Its first director, Katharina Petersen, was responsible for setting up the school.

One of the school's most notable teachers was the music teacher William Hildesheimer, who Anglicized his surname after the war.

Sweden

Regardless of the fact that many people who later became prominent found refuge in Sweden after 1933 (such as Nelly Sachs , Peter Weiss , Gottfried Bermann Fischer , Willy Brandt , Herbert Wehner or Bruno Kreisky ), Sweden was for those persecuted from Germany during the Nazi era not a preferred destination and did not define itself as a country of immigration. On the contrary: there was a restrictive immigration policy, and the general mood in the country was at least divided when it came to refugees.

“Legal, illegal, rejected - at the time, they also marked immigration in Sweden politically, racially, and generally persecuted from Nazi Germany. Most affected were communists and those whose passports were marked with a red "J". When entering the country, it had to be stated on the registration form whether the persons affected were of Jewish origin on their mother's or father's side. Because with the German occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1938, a broad movement of refugees, mainly Jewish people, began. And their admission, according to the then Swedish Foreign Minister, could "have a negative impact on public opinion in the country."

Merethe Aagaard Jensen makes it clear that this is not just a "Swedish model", but rather a policy that is generally shared in the Scandinavian countries :

"In June 1938, the political and bureaucratic decision makers of the Scandinavian countries held a conference to coordinate their approach to refugee problems. Regarding the Jewish refugee children not accompanied by parents, they expressed their concern that it would not be possible to “get rid of them” again as their natural parents could not emigrate or their foster parents became too attached to the children. The residence of Jewish children and youths in Scandinavia therefore was only thought to be a temporary solution up to when their parents had managed to build a life for themselves in a third country and could take care of their children again. In case of the participants of the Youth Aliyah a speedy emigration to Palestine was expected. "

Between 1933 and 1943, Sweden took in around 5,000 German-speaking refugees, "of whom around two thirds were victims of the Nuremberg race legislation ". After 1939, this relatively small group of refugees also included “a contingent of 400 Jews in Sweden [...], negotiated by Cora Berliner from the Reich Association of Jews in Germany . Thanks to Eva Warburg's efforts, 450–500 German-Jewish children could also be taken in. ”However, the Swedish refugee policy always followed the motto“ Sweden for the Swedes ”, which might have been understandable for reasons of labor market policy, but was often based on racism and shaped by open sympathy for the National Socialist ideology. Jews have long been considered "economic refugees". Evidence for the racist and nationalist tendencies in Swedish society may be that after the war a pile of memos was found in a chest by the new owner in a private attic in Malung. “These pieces of paper contained the names of around 3,000 people of Jewish descent or only suspected. They were supposed to serve as a basis for deportations to extermination camps if Sweden were to become National Socialist. The right-wing Manhem Förbundet kept an even larger register of Jews. (Spiegel 47/1997) "

Jewish emigrants were not only observed by right-wing circles, they were also a thorn in the side of their Swedish co-religionists. After the German occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1938 and the resulting flight of many Czech Jews to Sweden, the Swedish Foreign Minister saw the danger that “public opinion in the country could be negatively influenced” by these people. "In this he was supported by the Jewish community in Stockholm, 'which wanted nothing to do with their inferior fellow believers from the East.'" On the other hand, it was precisely Stockholm's Jewish community of around 4,000 people, many activities to support them who supported Jewish refugees, including the Kristinehov boarding school , and for the children and young people brought to Sweden by Eva Warburg, the community had “given the children a guarantee that they would look after them for the next one and a half to three years. The Swedish state did not generally cover all the costs of housing refugees. "

For more information on Swedish history from 1933 to 1945, see Sweden in the interwar period and especially:

Kristinehov boarding school, Västraby

While most schools in exile were designed to prepare children and young people for a wide range of exile countries and accordingly also work towards internationally recognized school-leaving qualifications, this was not the case for Kristinehov boarding school . Here the preparation for the emigration to Palestine was in the foreground, as a result of which it "developed more and more into a 'waiting room'".

Switzerland

Ecole d'Humanité, Versoix (Canton of Geneva)

The Ecole d'Humanité was founded in Versoix in 1934 by the German reform pedagogues Paul Geheeb and Edith Geheeb-Cassirer . Some of the students had previously been to the Odenwald School and fled from there with the Geheebs into exile in Switzerland. In 1946 the school was relocated to its current location in Goldern-Hasliberg (Canton of Bern).

Les Rayons, Gland (Vaud)

Like the Walkemühle rural education center , Les Rayons (Gland) is an example of how a German educational reform institution tried to save its existence and identity over several stages of exile.

The story of Les Rayons begins as

and leads from Lower Saxony to Gland on Lake Geneva. There it briefly overlaps with the history of the Quaker School Ayton School , and then as

A stopover before final exile in the USA ( Windsor Mountain School ). The link between all of this is the life and work of the Bondy couple.

Turkey

Turkey is not one of the countries in which a school that Feidel-Mertz researched was in exile . The reason may be that there was actually no exile school for German-speaking emigrants in Turkey. But there were also school offers there that were aimed exclusively at the children of the children of emigrants and were independent of the German schools operating under the influence of the National Socialists.

There is now an extensive literature on the country of exile Turkey and the Turkish asylum policy:

This means that the number of emigrants was relatively small (around 1000 to 1945) and that most of them came from an academic background. Turkey hoped, which has also happened, that the German (from 1938 increasingly also Austrian) emigrants would give a boost to modernization on the way to a western state, especially in the university system and in the area of ​​state administration. But it was also an architect who had emigrated from Germany, Bruno Taut , who was allowed to design the Katafalks for the state founder Mustafa Kemal Ataturk , who died in 1938 . Once, apart from the musician and music teacher Eduard Zuckmayer , a brother of the writer Carl Zuckmayer , who emigrated to the USA, they were educators, although this was an exception among immigrants to Turkey. A not inconsiderable number of the German-speaking emigrants entered Turkey via Istanbul, but did not find a job there, but in distant Ankara. In this way, many children came there, but for whom there was no opportunity for school education on site. The "German school compass" in which the children of the German nationals were taught was for political reasons, out of the question, and the visit of a Turkish school failed mostly from mutual adjustment difficulties. Something changed in this situation when, in 1934, Dr. phil. Leyla Kudret and her husband moved from Istanbul to Ankara. Leyla Kudret was a scientifically educated woman, born in Germany, who married the Turkish Kudret Bey in 1921 and gave private lessons in Istanbul from 1924. In Ankara it quickly became an institution and organized, on a private but highly professional basis, school education for children of different ages. It made it possible for many of them to "start and finish their studies in various faculties in Germany, the USA or England and also achieve considerable professional success".

USSR

Karl Liebknecht School, Moscow

Uruguay

Before 1933, Uruguay had a longer democratic tradition and a comparatively good standard of living. However, the global economic crisis in the late 1920s / early 1930s hit the export-dependent country hard and led to a coup in 1933 by President Gabriel Terra , who has been in office since 1931 , which dissolved parliament, established an authoritarian political system and helped fascist forces gain influence. The persecution of opposition politicians and trade unionists that began drove many people into exile.

In 1933, around 6,000 people of German origin lived in Uruguay, around 1,000 of them with a German passport. Between 1933 and 1944, another 10,000 Jewish and non-Jewish refugees from the German sphere of influence were added to this existing German colony - less of their own free will, but because of the fact that no entry or residence permits were required for Uruguay. There they met a local branch of the NSDAP's foreign organization (AO), which had been very active since 1932 and which quickly expanded its influence on the eight German schools.

The Pestalozzi School in Montevideo

In 1935 , the Pestalozzi School was founded in Peñarol , a suburb of Montevideo. It emerged from a parents' initiative that opposed the National Socialist conformity of the German school in Montevideo.

The Rübens house in Colonia Valdense

Halfway between Montevideo and Buenos Aires, in Colonia Valdense , from 1936 the German theologian and resistance fighter Annemarie Rübens built the Rübens house , a country school home that became a meeting place for German emigrants on both sides of the Rio de la Plata and many Jewish and non-Jewish people Made vacation stays possible for children of emigrants.

United States

One of the first three students at Windsor Mountain School was Carl Zuckmayer's daughter , Maria Winnetou Zuckmayer. It is unclear whether the Bondys and the Zuckmayers had known each other before, but they had mutual acquaintances who helped the Bondys found their school: the writer and journalist Dorothy Thompson and her husband, the writer Sinclair Lewis . Both the Bondys and the Zuckmayers were therefore probably among those preferred refugees who Dorothy Thompson, with the support of Eleanor Roosevelt and Franklin D. Roosevelt, made it possible for them to enter the USA. Although the Zuckmayers initially entered the USA on a visitor visa in 1939, after a short trip with the entire family to Cuba, the Zuckmayers were able to return to the USA on a permanent basis with an unlimited non-quota visa , bypassing the immigration quota .

Back then you needed relationships and luck to immigrate to the USA:

"Traditional isolationism determined American foreign policy until the forced entry into World War II after the Japanese attack on the American naval base Pearl Harbor in Hawaii in December 1941. And that also determined American immigration and refugee policy after 1933."

Affidavits , guarantees from American friends or relatives, and a strict quota system were the preferred instruments of American politics to maintain this isolatism. Communist fear and high unemployment served to further justify it. From the ranks of the Committee for Un-American Activities , established in 1938 and especially notorious after 1945 under Senator Joseph McCarthy , the following said:

"We must ignore the tears of snobbing sentimentalists and internationalists, and we must permanently close, lock and bar the gates of our country to new immigration waves and then throw the keys away."

As much as isolationism, xenophobia and anti-Semitism determined the official immigration policy of the USA (the fate of the people on the St. Louis is a macabre example of this), on the other hand the private wave of helpfulness and the commitment of the many aid organizations “that are took care of the rescue of the refugees, provided material aid and ensured professional and social integration ”. The Bondy family, founders of Windsor Mountain School and Roeper School , benefited, and so did, albeit with more difficulty, Hans Maeder , founder of Stockbridge School .

Windsor Mountain School, Vermont

The Windsor Mountain School is the second exile of the couple Max and Gertrud Bondy after their expulsion from

and her subsequent exile in Switzerland, where she attended school for about three years

in Gland VD . Since Switzerland did not seem safe enough for the Bondys in view of the impending war dangers, they moved to the USA in 1939 with the help of Marienau's old student and later son-in-law Georg Roeper. Here, with the support of the writer and journalist Dorothy Thompson and her husband, the writer Sinclair Lewis, they built their new school, which was headed by his son Heinz after the death of Max Bondy (1951).

Georg Roeper and Annemarie Bondy married shortly after the family arrived in the USA in 1939. In 1941 they founded their own school, "The Roeper School", which still exists today.

The Roeper School

The Roeper School is not mentioned in Hildegard Feidel-Mertz's overview of the founding of schools in exile. There is no justification for this, although the school was founded in 1941, and not after the Second World War like the Stockbridge School . The slightly different pedagogical approach may play a role here, as the Roepers focused on promoting highly gifted and talented children from the start. They were both graduates from the Marienau School of Education , but they followed their own approach.

Stockbridge School, Stockbridge, Massachusetts

Compared to the other schools in exile, the school founded by Hans Maeder in 1948 is not one that was founded outside Germany during the Nazi regime. It was founded after the war, but in the person of its founder it points to a true exile odyssey. And in the tradition of liberal German reform pedagogy, it is “a further development of the Free School Community under American conditions. American founder optimism mobilized a pioneering spirit and a thirst for adventure to change social conditions. They consciously wanted to offer alternatives, a new human being. "

Buck's Rock

In the writings of Hildegard Feidel-Mertz, the Buck's Rock Work Camp founded by Ernst Bulova is hardly mentioned, presumably not because it was not a school, but a summer camp that only ran for a few months each year. Nevertheless, behind this camp is not only the fate of its founder and his wife Ilse as emigrants, but also the continuation of a progressive pedagogy previously practiced in Germany. Both had been pioneers of Montessori education in Germany and had managed Montessori institutions in Berlin. This pedagogical direction also remained the guideline of her work in Buck's Rock . Compared to the Beltane School (see above under Great Britain), Buck's Rock must be seen as the real life's work of the Bulovas.

Manumit School

The Manumit School was a "progressive school" that emerged from the American reform movement in the 1920s, was supported by the American trade unions and primarily cared for children from the working class. From 1938 the Manumit School collaborated with Ingrid Warburg Spinelli , who was looking for a childcare option for Jewish refugee children that should be more oriented towards the traditions of German rural education centers than rigid models of assimilation. This then resulted in the Progressive School Committee for Refugees' Children , whose most prominent supporter was Eleanor Roosevelt.

Although the Manumit School also had the suffix “Farm School”, there are no similarities to the above-mentioned farm schools in Great Britain, because at Manumit, farming was never understood as preparation for immigration to Palestine .

See also

literature

  • Irina Michitarjan: Research on German-speaking educational emigration: inventory and suggestions for an interdisciplinary theoretical analysis. In: Pädagogische Rundschau, 2/2010, pp. 113–128. Accessible on the Internet via: Irina Mchitarjan: "Research on German-speaking educational emigration"
  • Hildegard Feidel-Mertz (Hrsg.): Schools in exile. Repressed pedagogy after 1933 . rororo, Reinbek, 1983, ISBN 3-499-17789-7 .
  • Hildegard Feidel-Mertz (translation: Andrea Hammel): Integration and Formation of Identity: Exile Schools in Great Britain, in: Shofar. An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies, Volume 23, Number 1, Fall 2004, pp. 71-84.
  • Hildegard Feidel-Mertz : Education in exile after 1933. Education for survival. Pictures at an exhibition . dipa publishing house, Frankfurt am Main, 1990, ISBN 3-7638-0520-6 .
  • Hildegard Feidel-Mertz (updated version: Hermann Schnorbach): Jewish country school homes in National Socialist Germany. A suppressed chapter of German school history , updated version by Hermann Schnorbach, in: Inge Hansen-Schaberg (ed.): Landerziehungsheim-Pädagogik , Reformpädagogische Schulkonzepte, Volume 2, Schneider Verlag Hohengehren GmbH, Baltmannsweiler, 2012, ISBN 978-3-8340-0962 -3 , pp. 159-182.
  • Hildegard Feidel-Mertz (updated version: Hermann Schnorbach): The pedagogy of the rural education homes in exile , in: Inge Hansen-Schaberg (ed.): Landerziehungsheim-Pädagogik , new edition, reform pedagogical school concepts, volume 2, Schneider Verlag Hohengehren GmbH, Baltmannsweiler, 2012 , ISBN 978-3-8340-0962-3 , pp. 183-206.
  • Sonja Wegner: Refuge in a foreign country. Exile in Uruguay 1933–1945 . Verlag Association A, Berlin / Hamburg 2013, ISBN 978-3-86241-407-9 .
  • Hermann Schnorbach: For a 'different Germany'. - The Pestalozzi School in Buenos Aires (1934–1958) . dipa-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 1995, ISBN 3-7638-0353-X .
  • Claus-Dieter Krohn, Patrik von zur Mühlen, Gerhard Paul and Lutz Winkler (eds.): Handbuch der Deutschensprachigen Emigration 1933–1945 , special edition, 2nd, unchanged edition, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, 2008, ISBN 978-3-534- 21999-5 . It contains many country articles about the receiving countries and the prevailing political and legal conditions there, for example:
    • Waltraud Strickhausen: Great Britain , pp. 251–270.
    • Ursula Langkau-Alex, Hans Würzner: Netherlands ; Pp. 321-333.
  • Active Museum Association (ed.): Haymatloz. Exile in Turkey 1933–1945 . Exhibition catalog, publisher like Hg., Berlin, 2000.
  • Sabine Hillebrecht: Emigrant children in Ankara. In: Active Museum Association (ed.): Haymatloz. Exile in Turkey 1933–1945 . Exhibition catalog, Verlag wie Hg., Berlin, 2000, pp. 112–129. A revised version of this catalog entry is available:
  • Sabine Hillebrecht: Freedom in Ankara. German-speaking children of emigrants in exile in Turkey. In: In: Childhood and youth in exile - a generation theme (= exile research. An international yearbook, volume 24, p. 95ff). edition text + kritik, Munich, 2006, ISBN 3-88377-844-3 , pp. 198–214. Both essays by Sabine Hillebrecht are almost the only publications that deal with the situation of German-speaking emigrant children in exile in Turkey.
  • Ursula Langkau-Alex: Women Emigrés in the Netherlands , in: Sibylle Quack (Editor) Between sorrow and strength. Women refugees of the Nazi period , German Historical Institute Washington DC and Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995, ISBN 0-521-47081-1 .
  • Rainerkap: The historical context: persecution and deportation of the Jews in the Netherlands , in: Susanne Brandt, Rainerkap (ed.): The diary of Klaus Seckel , Simon Verlag für Bibliothekswissen, Berlin, 2011, ISBN 3-940862-14- 2 .
  • JM Ritchie: Dr Karl König and the Camphill Community , in: Anthony Grenville and Andrea Reiter (Ed.): “I didn't want to float; I wanted to belong to something. “Refugee Organizations in Britain 1933 - 1945 , The @yearbook of the Research Center for German and Austrian Exile Studies 10, Rodopi, Amsterdam, 2008, ISBN 978-90-420-2567-7 , pp. 169-182.
  • Lyn Smith: Heroes of the Holocaust. Ordinary Britons Who Risked Their Lives to Make a Difference , Ebury Press, London, 2012, ISBN 978-0-09-194067-6 .
  • Rebekka Göpfert: The Jewish Kindertransport from Germany to England 1938/39. History and memory , Campus-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 1999, ISBN 3-593-36201-5 .
  • Ingrid Warburg Spinelli: '' Memories. The urgency of compassion and the loneliness of saying no. '' Luchterhand Literaturverlag, Hamburg and Zurich, 1991, ISBN 978-3-630-71013-6 .
  • Fritz C. Neumann: Memoirs of a contemporary , unpublished manuscript in English, edited by Lisel Mueller, Libertiville, 1965, 248 S. A copy of the manuscript was kindly made available by the library of the German Historical Institute in Washington.

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ The reconstruction of the history of these facilities is largely the result of research by Hildegard Feidel-Mertz
  2. ↑ Even 70 years after the end of the Second World War, the history of research into German-speaking educational emigration has not yet been conclusively processed. Irina Michitarjan provides an overview of the current state of research: Research on German-speaking educational emigration: inventory and suggestions for an interdisciplinary theoretical analysis. In: Pädagogische Rundschau, 2/2010, pp. 113–128. Accessible on the Internet via: Irina Mchitarjan: “Research on German-speaking pedagogical emigration” ( Memento of the original from January 23, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.phil.uni-greifswald.de
  3. ↑ Hildegard Feidel-Mertz: Jüdische Landschulheime , p. 164
  4. ↑ Hildegard Feidel-Mertz: Pedagogy in Exile after 1933 , p. 121.
  5. ↑ Hildegard Feidel-Mertz (Ed.): Schools in Exile , p. 9.
  6. ↑ Claus-Dieter Krohn, Patrik von zur Mühlen, Gerhard Paul and Lutz Winkler (eds.): Handbook of German-speaking Emigration 1933–1945 (see section on literature)
  7. ↑ Prof. Dr. Olaf Blaschke on German-Argentine relations
  8. ↑ Argentina: At the end of a new life
  9. ↑ On the political situation at the time the school was founded: Interview with Pieter Siemsen, anti-fascist emigrant in Argentina
  10. ↑ Hildegard Feidel-Mertz (Ed.): Schools in Exile , p. 185.
  11. ↑ Brecht and Goethe in the Calle Freire
  12. ↑ Current homepage of the Pestalozzi School in Buenos Aires
  13. ↑ Hermann Schnorbach: For a 'different Germany'. Pp. 205-206.
  14. ↑ Schnorbach reports on this in the context of his study on the Pestalozzi School in Buenos Aires and subsumes the Swiss school in Santiago under "Schools with the same objective". (Hermann Schnorbach: For a 'different Germany'. Pp. 205–206) If one ignores the deliberate separation from the National Socialist German school, the anti-fascist attitude that was characteristic of the schools in Buenos Aires and Montevideo remains with the Swiss school quite diffuse.
  15. ↑ In the picture gallery on the school's homepage there is a picture of the initial open-air lessons. However, there is little information about the founding history of the school. History of the Swiss School in Santiago de Chile
  16. ↑ Hermann Schnorbach: For a 'different Germany'. P. 206. Schnorbach names five German students and among others 17 school children. It is not reported whether some of these were of German descent.
  17. ↑ Hermann Schnorbach: For a 'different Germany'. Pp. 205-206.
  18. ^ Swiss School Santiago
  19. ↑ Hans Uwe Petersen: THE DANISH REFUGEE POLICY 1933–1941
  20. ↑ A good overview of the conditions in exile in France, focused on the situation of artists in exile, is provided by the website Arts in Exile: France
  21. ↑ Hildegard Feidel-Mertz (Ed.): Schools in Exile, p. 168.
  22. ↑ Waltraud Strickhausen: Great Britain in: Claus-Dieter Krohn, Patrik von zur Mühlen, Gerhard Paul and Lutz Winkler (eds.): Handbuch der Deutschensprachigen Emigration 1933–1945 , p. 253
  23. ↑ This brief overview is based on Jennifer Taylor: THE MISSING CHAPTER , which primarily examines the role of Quakers in the rescue and support of refugees from the Nazi sphere of influence.
  24. ^ Lyn Smith: Heroes of the Holocaust, p. 47.
  25. ↑ Hildegard Feidel-Mertz (translation: Andrea Hammel): Integration and Formation of Identity , p. 71.
  26. ↑ Photos and a short history of Bunce Court ( Memento of the original from September 28, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. can be found on the Faversham Town website. Last accessed: March 15, 2016. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.faversham.org
  27. ↑ For a more detailed presentation (in English) see: JM Ritchie: Dr Karl König and the Camphill Community
  28. ^ Homepage of the Camphill School Aberdeen
  29. ^ Camphill Worldwide
  30. ↑ Kindertransport-Overview ( Memento of the original from January 5, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . “ Whittingehame Farm School and The Millisle Farm are examples of where some of the children have found refuge. Both were also places where the children were taught agricultural techniques. " @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.nationalholocaustcentre.net
  31. ^ Rebekka Göpfert: The Jewish Kindertransport from Germany to England 1938/39 , pp. 124-125. Göpfert is wrong with her statement that Millisle Farm should have been closed again soon. The facility existed until 1948.
  32. ^ Rebekka Göpfert: The Jewish Kindertransport from Germany to England 1938/39 , p. 126 "
  33. ↑ Hildegard Feidel-Mertz (ed.): Schools in Exile, p. 154. The "Bolkenstein" mentioned by Feidel-Mertz is actually Gerrit Bolkestein , who had become a minister in 1939, but before that Dutch school inspector: G. (Gerrit) Bolkestein
  34. ↑ Ursula Langkau-Alex, Hans Würzner: The Netherlands, p. 322.
  35. ↑ Ursula Langkau-Alex: Women Emigrés in the Netherlands , p. 104.
  36. ↑ Ursula Langkau-Alex, Hans Würzner: The Netherlands , pp. 323-324.
  37. ^ Rainerkap: The historical context: persecution and deportation of the Jews in the Netherlands , in: Susanne Brandt, Rainerkap (ed.): The diary of Klaus Seckel , p. 92.
  38. ↑ a b c d ANNE E. DÜNZELMANN: STOCKHOLMER WALKS. In the footsteps of German exiles 1933 to 1945 ( Memento of the original from May 19, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.exilarchiv.de
  39. ↑ Merethe Aagaard Jensen: The Rescue of Jewish Children and Youths to Sweden from a Scandinavian Perspective
  40. ↑ a b Einhart Lorenz: Sweden , in: Claus-Dieter Krohn, Patrik von zur Mühlen, Gerhard Paul and Lutz Winkler (eds.): Handbuch der Deutschensprachigen Emigration 1933–1945 , pp. 371–375.
  41. ↑ Clemens Maier-Wolthausen: An impossible journey
  42. ↑ Hildegard Feidel-Mertz (ed.): Schools in Exile , p. 104.
  43. ↑ Hildegard Feidel-Mertz: Pedagogy in Exile after 1933. P. 122.
  44. ↑ Reiner Möckelmann: "Waiting room Ankara. Ernst Reuter: Exile and return to Berlin". Berlin, 2013, ISBN 978-3-8305-3143-2 , p. 84.
  45. ↑ also: Gabriel Terra Leivas, born on August 1, 1873, died on September 15, 1942, Uruguayan President from 1931 to 1938.
  46. ^ Sonja Wegner: Refuge in a foreign land. P. 145.
  47. ↑ Hermann Schnorbach, For Another Germany. S. 203. For the situation in Uruguay see also: German-speaking emigration to Uruguay 1933–1945 .
  48. ^ Sonja Wegner: Refuge in a foreign land. P. 9.
  49. ^ Sonja Wegner: Refuge in a foreign land. P. 167.
  50. ↑ This strange name for the daughter, born in 1926, is based on the influence of the novels by Karl May and James Fenimore Cooper, for which Zuckmayer was enthusiastic for life. Biography Carl Zuckmayer ( Memento of the original from March 23, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / carl-zuckmayer.de
  51. ↑ Biography Carl Zuckmayer ( Memento of the original from March 23, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Non-quota visas were mainly issued for German scientists or, more generally, for people whose entry was seen as beneficial for the progress of American society. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / carl-zuckmayer.de
  52. ↑ Claus-Dieter Krohn et al. (Ed.): Handbook of German-speaking Emigration 1933–1945. P. 448.
  53. ↑ Quoted from: Claus-Dieter Krohn et al. (Ed.): Handbook of German-speaking Emigration 1933–1945. P. 453.
  54. ↑ Claus-Dieter Krohn et al. (Ed.): Handbook of German-speaking Emigration 1933–1945. P. 456.
  55. ↑ Hildegard Feidel-Mertz: Pedagogy in Exile after 1933. P. 122.
  56. ↑ For the history of the Roeper School see the article in the English language Wikipedia: Roeper School (Michigan) . However, there is no reference to the roots in the Bondy schools. The same applies to the article about Annemarie Roeper . On the official website of the Roeper School there is also no reference to the tradition going back to the German rural education homes.
  57. ↑ Hildegard Feidel-Mertz (Ed.): Schools in Exile . P. 201.