Wagon (zither)

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Fujiwara no Otsugu (773–843), a nobleman and minister in the Heian period , plays a wagon . Drawing by Kikuchi Yōsai in Zenken Kojitsu , a collection of biographies of historical figures, published 1903.

Wagon ( Japanese 和 琴 , also 大 和 琴 yamato-goto , composed of 大 和 yamato , "Japan", and 琴 koto , "zither") is a rare six-string vaulted board zither with movable bridges , which, according to their two names, has a prominent status as the only one A stringed instrument developed in Japan , while the more popular 13-string koto is believed to have originated in China. The vaulted board zither appeared in Japan without an immediate model at the turn of the ages, in the Yayoi period , and as a wagon has had its current shape since the 8th century. The wagon is used exclusively in religious cult music and for dance accompaniment in Shinto as well as in some genres of court music Gagaku .

origin

Javanese bamboo zither gumbeng with two idiochord strings. Tropical Museum , Amsterdam, before 1936.

The archetypal forms of zithers, which only require a straight string carrier, which is also a resonance body, and one or more strings stretched parallel over it, include the bamboo tube zithers, which have an idiochorde (cut out of the outer layer of the bamboo tube). After a presumably much larger distribution area in the past, they are still played in Asia in the folk music of northeast India ( gintang , chigring ) via Indonesia ( guntang ), the Philippines ( kolitong ) and in the highlands of Vietnam. Bamboo zithers belong to the characteristic instruments of the oldest peoples on the Malay Islands . A further development of the idiochord bamboo tube zithers are heterochord instruments, including the sasando on the Indonesian island of Roti , which is a specialty with 24 or more steel strings stretched over the entire surface of the bamboo tube. Another direction of development leads to raft zithers, which occur mainly in central and eastern Africa, in which several tubes, each carrying a string, are connected in parallel. Curt Sachs (1923) also recognizes in bamboo tube zithers the preliminary stage of the Southeast Asian crocodile zithers (such as the mí-gyaùng saung in Myanmar and the krapeu or takhe in Cambodia ), which he in turn believes to be the ancestors of the East Asian vaulted board zithers such as the Chinese guzheng . The development from the bamboo tube zither valiha to the box zither marovany in Madagascar can be clearly seen in the adopted playing posture. According to Curt Sachs and Kurt Reinhard (1956), the ancestors of the vaulted board zithers are particularly the half-tube zithers made of bamboo, in which a bamboo tube is split lengthways and one half is strung on the outside with strings. Half-tubular bamboo zithers are rare and were found in southern Africa ( tshidzholo , obsolete), on some East Indonesian islands ( santo on the island of Flores ) and in ancient China.

China

Chinese guqin with 7 strings.
Chinese guzheng with 21 strings and sliding bridges.

Until the 6th century BC Chr. Drafted Shijing , " Book of Songs ", is the most important collection of texts for ancient Chinese poetry and music from the first half of the 1st millennium BC. In several poems small and large zithers are mentioned, as well as sound stones, vessel flutes , flutes, bells and drums. The oldest Chinese board zithers had five strings, during the course of the Zhou dynasty the number of strings was increased to seven and in a poem (No. 218) in the Book of Songs, guqin ( ch'in ) evidently means a six-string zither with parallel strings run over an elongated wooden board.

The oldest written source mentioning a Chinese semi-tubular zither, the strings of which was struck with a rubbing stick, is called Jiu Tangshu ("Ancient History of the Tang Dynasty") and was completed in 945. According to the description, in the Tang period (617 / 618–907) a bamboo stick with a moistened end was used to strike the zither called yazheng . Ya means that a staff without hair was used and zheng ( guzheng ) generally stands for "vaulted board zither". Rubbing sticks were possibly first used on lute instruments in the central Asian region of Sogdia in the 6th century , and this playing technique could have come to China from there. An early illustration of the yazheng is contained in the Yueshu ("Book of Music") by Chen Yang from 1104. You can see a long zither with about nine strings over a slightly curved board, which is similar to a guzheng . Further illustrations in connection with courtly banquet scenes and song recitals indicate the growing popularity of the yazheng from the 12th century. In the 14th century a yazheng with seven strings came to Korea as ajaeng , where it is still played today. In China, the vaulted board zithers marked with a stick only occur regionally under different names in folk music.

The most famous Chinese vaulted board zither today is the guzheng , whose history dates back to the 1st millennium BC. Goes back to BC. The first documentation of a musical performance with a guzheng contains the Shiji ("Record of the Historian") around 100 BC. According to this, the guzheng was used together with clay drums and clay pots to accompany songs. According to the oldest Chinese dictionary of signs, Shuowen Jiezi, from the 2nd century AD, the zither had a body made of bamboo and produced a sound "zheng", the onomatopoeic name of the instrument, by plucking the strings. The original use of bamboo is probably also derived from the character for zheng ( Chinese  箏 ), the upper part of which is the character zhú ( Chinese  竹 ) for “bamboo”. The Vietnamese vaulted board zither đàn tranh and the Chinese guqin , which, unlike all other East Asian zithers, have no bridges under the strings, are smaller than the guzheng . An old and very large with 25 to 50 strings Chinese zither is the se . The Japanese koto with today 13 silk or nylon strings probably came from China to Japan in the Nara period (710–794). The Ainu in northern Japan play with the shell zither tonkori , another type of zither that otherwise occurs in East Africa.

Japan

Japanese koto with 13 strings. Painting by Hasegawa Settei, 1878.

The distribution area of ​​the tubular bamboo zither only coincides in a few areas with that of the oral bow or musical bow , which occurs mainly in southern Africa and in Asia, sporadically in India ( villadi vadyam ). In its form between the musical bow and the tubular zither, the stick zither is known as zeze in East Africa , but is practically absent in East and Southeast Asia. There are dragon bows popular in Japan Unari hot.

Before the introduction of the koto , the zither type, known today as the wagon , existed in Japan , which at that time was still called koto . According to tradition, this old Japanese koto was created from six mouth arches placed next to each other. The first works in the ancient Japanese language , the Kojiki (written around 712) and the Nihonshoki (around 720), tell of the importance of dance and music for the cosmogonic order. The music of the most famous mythical story also included mouth bows (hunting bows). It is about the sun goddess Amaterasu , who was insulted by her brother and adversary Susanoo, who was later ordered to be the guardian of hell . Angry about this, the sun goddess withdrew into a cave, causing the earth to fall into eternal darkness. Amenouzume then performed a humorous and suggestive dance in front of the cave, accompanied by music and laughter from the rest of the assembled deities. This lured the curious Amaterasu out of the cave and so the sky became bright again. Chinese sources from the first half of the 1st millennium indicate that music played an important role in everyday life in ancient Japan, but mainly folk music with simple music Forms was.

In addition to the wagon , the zithers ichigenkin (with one string) and nigenkin (with two strings) as well as the bamboo flutes fue ( fuyé , of which the edge-blown longitudinal flute shakuhachi is best known), are the only musical instruments that are of Japanese origin. While the shakuhachi was introduced via China at the beginning of the 8th century, the oldest known examples of the wagon refer to an influence from Korea. The Japanese name shiragigoto denotes a Korean type of zither. Shiragi is the Japanese word for the Korean kingdom of Silla (356-935), in Korean the "Silla zither" is gayageum . In the Wakan Sansai Zue (“Illustrated Sino-Japanese Encyclopedia”), which was published in the Edo period in 1712, two old Korean koto are depicted: a simple angle harp is called a shiragigoto ( shiragi-koto ) and a narrow board zither with a carved human head on one side as kudara-koto ("Korean koto "). In this context, Francis Piggott (1901) sees the duplication of the string of a mouth bow on the one hand the harp and on the other hand the board zither. Here Piggott agrees with the Japanese tradition, according to which the wagon was created from several parallel connected hunting bows with strings of different strengths that produced correspondingly graduated tones.

The Kojiki tells the magical aspect of this single-stringed instrument : The storm god Susanoo owns a magical stringed instrument called ane-no-norigoto (“heavenly speaking sounds”). When Susanoo sleeps, his son-in-law tries to steal it. But when the instrument is being wiped along a tree, it begins to call out loudly to wake its owner, whereupon the earth begins to scream. The magical ability of the string bow remained alive in a ritual up to the Heian period (794–1185). The members of the imperial palace guard drew the string of their bow at night and released it without firing an arrow. This exercise called meigen ("sighing bowstring") served to protect the ruler from evil spirits and was practiced at fixed intervals.

The Japanese angle harp kugo disappeared from court music towards the end of the 1st millennium, its Chinese model konghou was in use until the 14th century. The shiragigoto zither of the Nara period has also disappeared. In the Shōsōin, the treasure house that belongs to the Tōdai-ji temple in Nara , three old shiragigoto are kept, which are about 158 ​​centimeters long and 30 to 38 centimeters wide. Twelve silk strings run over fixed bridges on both sides and movable bridges in the middle on the slightly curved top. The strings were plucked with a pick . The shiragigoto is mentioned in the Nihonshoki in connection with foreign music, which was played in the 42nd year of the ruler Ingyō (453 AD). In addition to the rather simple zithers that were once used as musical instruments, the Shōsōin also contains instruments lavishly decorated with gold and silver inlays, which presumably served exclusively as representative jewelry objects.

Little is known from archaeological finds about native music up to the 6th century AD. The written Japanese sources from the 8th century onwards describe music with board zithers ( wagon, koto ), flutes ( fue ), hourglass drums ( tsuzumi ) and rattling vessels ( suzu, a kind of sistrum with bells ), which was influenced by the East Asian mainland . Because of their Japanese names, these instruments are considered to be very old and indigenous. From the Jōmon period (around 10,000 to 300 BC) there are clay objects that can only be vaguely interpreted as drums or wind instruments. Elongated wooden boards from the second half of the 1st millennium BC are somewhat more reliable. As early forms of board zithers. The boards, on average 35 to 55 centimeters long, taper to a point on one side and end on the other side in two protruding pegs that could have been used to attach the strings. Their outlines are reminiscent of the tonkori of the Ainu. Strings and bridges were not preserved. The first board zithers were introduced together with vessel flutes made of clay and bronze bells towards the end of the Jōmon period, when the wet rice cultivation taken over from the Korean Peninsula laid the economic basis for far-reaching cultural upheavals.

The shape of the wagon first appears in the middle of the Yayoi period (3rd century BC - 3rd century AD). At the Tsujibatake cemetery in Fukuoka Prefecture , a wooden board from the 1st or 2nd century AD, preserved from a zither, was found next to urns that are dated around the turn of the century. The board is 149 centimeters long, 29 centimeters wide and 2 centimeters thick. It has a small round sound hole in the middle and six pegs or teeth ( shibi ) at one end, so that the reconstruction results in a six-stringed instrument, the strings of which run over centrally positioned bridges and are briefly brought together at a single attachment point at the other end. In addition to this oldest type of board zither, two other forms of zither have survived from the Yayoi period. The second type has a trough-shaped sound box under a rectangular ceiling board, which was carved out of a piece of wood. Smaller specimens are 50–60 centimeters long and 10 centimeters wide, individual finds are even smaller, most frequently instruments 115–160 centimeters long and 20–30 centimeters wide were excavated. Of this type alone, around 40 specimens or fragments from the 1st century to the 8th century have been found. In the third type of zither, of which eleven specimens have been preserved, a 55-90 centimeter long wooden board tapers by 10 centimeters wide at one end to 3 centimeters at the other end. Seven of these specimens have five tenons on the broad transverse side and two have four tenons.

Most of the numerous finds before the standardization of the form in the 9th century show a zither with five or six strings and clay grave figures ( haniwa ) from the Kofun period (around 300–710) show how the instrument was played. In the Aikawa Archaeological Museum in Isesaki , a 75 centimeter high Haniwa figure is kept, depicting a seated man with a sword on his hip. His hands are covered with tekō (ceremonial protective gloves) up to the elbows . The man is holding a 29.5 centimeter long wagon in his lap, which tapers from 10.5 to 6 centimeters wide. Originally there were four strings formed from clay beads. In Shizuoka Prefecture early small original instrument with four, five or six strings and a length of the board of at least 40 centimeters was found. It is on average 8 centimeters wide and one centimeter thick. The player sitting on the floor placed the zither, unlike today in Japan, like the Korean gayageum with twelve strings or the geomungo with six strings on his lap. Attaching the strings to tenons appears to be a Japanese invention, because it does not occur on the East Asian mainland, whereas the movable bridges under the strings refer to Chinese parallels.

While the original meaning of the Japanese word koto is unclear, wagon and yamato-goto are based on two Chinese characters translated as "Japanese zither". From the Nara period, the word koto was transferred to a number of stringed instruments, comparable to vina , which in Sanskrit in ancient India referred to bow harps, stick zithers and lute instruments. For example, kin-no-koto stood for shichigen-kin , the Chinese board zither qin and shitsu-no-koto or shitsu is the Chinese se , while biwa-no-koto means the Japanese short-necked biwa . Biwa and qin are only known today by their old prefix. Only the word koto , shortened from sō-no-koto , the old full name of the curved board zither, has survived to this day. Sō-no-koto is only used if it is necessary to distinguish it from other zithers. The old kugo harp was known in Japan as kudara-goto and the Korean zither gayageum as shiragi-goto . The yamato-goto became wagon for short .

Design

The forms of the koto and the wagon have changed little since the 8th century. The koto has a 180–190 centimeter long and only 24 centimeter wide sound box, the top and bottom of which are slightly arched. The 13 strings are the same length and are tuned by moving bridges in the middle. On both sides, the strings are attached directly behind a saddle placed across . The wagon is 188-197 centimeters similar length, but the sound box tapering from 24 inches on one side to 15 centimeters on the other. The thickness of the sound box varies between 4 and 8 centimeters. The bottom board has two resonance holes ( onketsu ). The ceiling is usually made of wood of Hinoki (Japanese hinoki ) or Paulownia ( Kiri produced), the bottom of hinoki or Mongolian oak ( sawaguri ).

The main differences to the koto , however, are the six pegs or teeth protruding horizontally on the wider long side, to which the strings of the wagon are tied with cords, and the arrangement of the strings, which do not run parallel, but meet at the narrow end in the middle. The cones are rectangular or leaf-shaped. The archaic appearance of traditional wagons comes from the movable bridges set up under each string, which consist of fork-shaped sections of maple twigs that have not been debarked. With some instruments today instead, like the koto, V-shaped bridges are used from maple. Kept by the eight in Treasury Shosoin wagon some have on the bottom-mounted feet, indicating that these instruments at the game like today's koto submitted before kneeling musician on the ground. In contrast, Haniwa figures from the 5th and 6th centuries show musicians with the wagon on their lap.

Style of play

Picture scroll Kasuga Gongen Kenki Emaki , dated 1309. In the background of the illustrated story a wagon played by a standing musician .

The wagon is played while sitting on the ground or, during outdoor performances ( tachigaku, "standing music") while standing. In the latter case, two assistants ( toneri , in the case of the koto , it is kotomochi , "koto holder") hold his instrument. The musician always positions the wagon across in front of him while playing. The string facing it is tuned to the highest note. A typical string tuning is ascending e 1 - g 1 - b 1 - d 1 - a 1 - d 2 . The root note d results in a pentatonic scale d 1 –e 1 –g 1 –a 1 –h 1 –d 2 , which is widespread in folk music and forms the ritsu scale in Japan . These notes are arranged in two three-part chords on the zither, which start with the highest note on the side facing the player: d 2 –a 1 –d 1 and h 1 –g 1 –e 1 . In contrast to the European harp and the koto , plucking all the strings does not result in a linear sequence of notes, but rather harmonic chords as with lute instruments . The wagon's music consists of four melodic structures called san, ji, oru and tsumu . While the melody does not leave the framework, the rhythm and tempo can vary. With this melodic limitation, the wagon fulfills a function of structuring the piece of music in time units in contrast to the other, more freely acting instruments. The end and beginning of melodic units are indicated with the tone sequences of the wagon .

Two plucking techniques are used, which differ from those of the koto : The six strings are torn with a pick in the right hand, while the fingers of the left hand mute all the strings except for one whose tone is to sound. Otherwise, strings are plucked with the left hand as well, but a string is never depressed to raise the tone.

Religious music

The wagon belongs to the cult music of Shinto, which according to the old, originally Japanese music tradition ( wagaku ) is understood as kagura , "music (and dance) for the gods". This consists of two groups: The courtly kagura or mi-kagura probably emerged from a religious banquet that lasted all night with songs and a few dances. The songs of mi-kagura are divided into torimono (praise to the gods or request for divine assistance) and saibari (to entertain the gods). The accompanying music is the same both times. The second group is sato-kagura, Shinto folk music or village kagura music. The best-known religious dance is the Azuma asobi , the origin of which is unclear, but for which there is evidence going back to the year 763. The dance is performed in a modernized form to this day. The old sources mention the wagon as the first accompanying instrument of the azuma asobi . Other accompanying instruments in the mi-kagura are the bamboo flute kagura-bue with six finger holes and a length of 45 centimeters. Together with the almost cylindrical double reed instrument hichiriki , the melodic instrumentation of a trio for mi-kagura results . The hichiriki is also the leading melody instrument used in all courtly musical styles ( gagaku ). The melodies for mi-kagura are now mainly taken from the old songs of the courtly Gagaku orchestra.

Mi-kagura is performed in a fixed sequence ( kagura-uta ) of a short instrumental prelude and twelve songs, which are divided into five sets. The rest of the 40 songs in the entire repertoire are no longer used today. The entire performance lasts seven hours. The two songs of the second set, Torimono no bu , form the central part of the ritual , while the following songs belong to the old banquet tradition and are of a less religious character. The songs are performed by 20 singers in two groups for one of the two parts ( moto-uta and sue-uta ) that make up each song. In each of the two parts of the song, the first verse is sung solo and the remaining verses are sung in a choir, accompanied by the three musical instruments mentioned. The choirmaster sets the time with the rattles shakubyōshi , two wooden sticks held in both hands that are struck against each other. The winds play a simple melodic structure in unison in a constant mode and the wagon player usually only adds arpeggios , which he produces on the open strings in quick succession with a stick -shaped plectrum ( kotosagi ). The arpeggios usually end in the same tone as the vocal melody or in a tone that matches it. He can pluck strings individually with his left hand. The entire song sequence is predominantly free rhythm.

Court music

Bamboo flute koma-bue .

The courtly style of music Gagaku goes back by name to the imperial music office Gagaku-ryō , founded in 701 , and consists of a repertoire called tōgaku (Chinese music), komagaku (Korean music), saibara and rōei , which also includes Shintō ritual music. According to the novel Genji Monogatari (“The Story of Prince Genji”) , written around 1002, the saibara song genre is performed as a soloist or accompanied by a flute, the biwa lute , the zithers koto or wagon , occasionally with a flute and a stringed instrument. Gagaku stands for "elegant" or "refined music". If the music accompanies dances, it is called bugaku . Their repertoire is divided into wagaku (Japanese music), sangangaku (court music and dance from Korea), tōgaku (music from the Chinese Tang dynasty ) and other dance and music styles that were introduced around the 6th century. A phase of wars in the Sengoku period caused court culture to practically disappear from the middle of the 15th century. Only the Meiji period brought back a large part of the lost and now standardized Gagaku music tradition from 1868 onwards. For the Shinto cult music genres kagura, yamato-uta and kume-uta performed at court , the bamboo flute kagura-bue , the oboe hichiriki , the batons shakubyōshi and the wagon are used. In the Azuma asobi dance, the kagura-bue is replaced by the shorter bamboo flute koma-bue . In addition to the wagon, the gakusō and the short-necked biwa are used as further stringed instruments in the gagaku . The gakusō is a variant reserved for court music and a forerunner of the koto with 13 strings. Unlike the wagon , but like the koto, the strings of the gakusō are tuned in ascending order. According to the wagon , the gakusō plays some consistent patterns and occasionally individual melodic forms.

The punctuation instrument shakubyōshi is used by the cantor in Shintō music and in saibara . Otherwise, three percussion instruments in tōgaku and komagaku provide rhythmic patterns. In tōgaku these are the double-headed barrel drum kakko , the flat gong shōko and the large barrel drum taiko , in komagaku the hourglass drum san-no-tsuzumi takes the place of the kakko .

literature

  • Silvain Guignard: Koto. In: MGG Online. November 2016 ( Music in the past and present , 1996).
  • Eta Harich-Schneider : A History of Japanese Music. Oxford University Press, London 1973
  • David W. Hughes: Wagon. In: Grove Music Online. 2001.
  • David W. Hughes: Wagon. In: Laurence Libin (Ed.): The Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments. Volume 5, Oxford University Press, Oxford / New York 2014, pp. 276f
  • William P. Malm: Japanese Music and Musical Instruments. Charles E. Tuttle Company, Rutland (Vermont) / Tokyo 1959.
  • Francis Piggott: The Music and Musical Instruments of Japan. 2nd edition, Kelly & Walsh, Shanghai / Hong Kong / Singapore 1909 ( archive.org ).

Web links

Commons : Wagon  - collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Sibyl Marcuse : A Survey of Musical Instruments. Harper & Row, New York 1975, p. 190.
  2. ^ Artur Simon : Southeast Asia: Musical Syncretism and Cultural Identity. In: Fontes Artis Musicae. Volume 57, No. 1, January – March 2010, pp. 23–34, here p. 25.
  3. ^ Curt Sachs : The musical instruments of India and Indonesia (at the same time an introduction to instrument science). 2nd edition, Georg Reimer, Berlin 1923, p. 103.
  4. ↑ a b Rolf B. Roth: The demarcation of "Indonesia" according to space and time: A contribution to the cultural history of the Indo-Pacific. In: Journal of Ethnology. Volume 112, Issue 1, 1987, pp. 1-44, here p. 20.
  5. ^ Kurt Reinhard : Chinese Music. Erich Röth-Verlag, Kassel 1956, p. 138.
  6. ^ Jaap Kunst : Music in Flores: A Study of the Vocal and Instrumental Music Among the Tribes Living in Flores. Brill, Leiden 1942, p. 129.
  7. ^ Eta Harich-Schneider: The Earliest Sources of Chinese Music and Their Survival in Japan. In: Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 11, No. 2, July 1955, pp. 195-213, here pp. 197, 208
  8. ↑ Harvey Turnbull: A Sogdian friction chordophone. In: DR Widdess, RF Wolpert (Ed.): Music and Tradition. Essays on Asian and other musics presented to Laurence Picken. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1981, pp. 197-206, here p. 197.
  9. ↑ Han Mei: Yazheng. In: Grove Music Online. May 28, 2015. doi: 10.1093 / gmo / 9781561592630.article.L2281942 (only via login).
  10. ↑ Han Mei: Zheng. In: Grove Music Online. 2001 doi: 10.1093 / gmo / 9781561592630.article.46543 (only via login).
  11. ^ W. Adriaansz: Koto. In: Grove Music Online. 2001 doi: 10.1093 / gmo / 9781561592630.article.15420 (only via login).
  12. ^ Francis Piggott, 1909, p. 111; Laurence Picken : The Music of the Far Eastern Asia. 2. Other Countries. In: Egon Wellesz (Ed.): Ancient and Oriental Music . Oxford University Press, London 1957, p. 177
  13. ^ Sibyl Marcuse: Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary. A complete, authoritative encyclopedia of instruments throughout the world. Country Life Limited, London 1966, p. 584, sv “Wagon”.
  14. ^ William P. Malm, 1959, p. 25.
  15. ^ Francis Piggott, 1909, p. 149.
  16. ^ Francis Piggott, 1901, p. 122
  17. ↑ Eta Harich-Schneider, 1973, p. 17
  18. ^ Karl F. Friday: Samurai, Warfare and the State in Early Medieval Japan. Psychology Press, London 2004, p. 32
  19. ↑ Henry Johnson: Shiragigoto. In: Grove Music Online, May 28, 2015 doi: 10.1093 / gmo / 9781561592630.article.L2281785 (only via login).
  20. ↑ Martin Gimm : Historical remarks on the Chinese art of instrument making of the T'ang, I. In: Oriens Extremus, Volume 17, No. 1/2, 1970, pp. 9–38, here p. 11.
  21. ↑ Shigeo Kishibe: Japan. 1. History. (i) Indigenous music. In: Grove Music Online. 2001 doi: 10.1093 / gmo / 9781561592630.article.43335 (only via login).
  22. ↑ Kasahara Kiyoshi: Archeology of Musical Instruments in Japan. In: Robert C. Provine, Yosihiko Tokumaru, J. Lawrence Witzleben (Eds.): Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 7: East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea. Routledge, London 2001, p. 560
  23. ^ Koji Mizoguchi: Genealogy in the ground: observations of jar burials of the Yayoi period, northern Kyushu, Japan. In: Antiquity. Volume 79, No. 304, January 2005, pp. 316-326, here p. 317.
  24. ↑ Kasahara Kiyoshi: Archeology of Musical Instruments in Japan. In: Robert C. Provine, Yosihiko Tokumaru, J. Lawrence Witzleben (Eds.): Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 7: East Asia: China, Japan, and Korea. Routledge, London 2001, pp. 561f
  25. ^ Mayumi Miyazaki: The History of Musical Instruments in Japan and Visual Sources. In: Music in Art. Volume 24, No. 1/2, spring – autumn 1999, pp. 51–55, here p. 51.
  26. ↑ Eta Harich-Schneider, 1973, p. 11
  27. ^ A b Silvain Guignard: Koto. II. Development. 1st wagon. In: MGG Online. November 2016.
  28. ↑ Eta Harich-Schneider, 1973, p. 4
  29. ^ David W. Hughes: Japan. II. Instruments and instrumental genres. 2. Archeology. In: Grove Music Online, 2001 doi: 10.1093 / gmo / 9781561592630.article.43335 (only via login).
  30. ^ Henry M. Johnson: A "Koto" by Any Other Name: Exploring Japanese Systems of Musical Instrument Classification. In: Asian Music, Volume 28, No. 1, Fall 1996 - Winter 1997, pp. 43–59, here p. 48.
  31. ^ David W. Hughes: Japan. II. Instruments and instrumental genres. 4. 'Koto'. In: Grove Music Online. 2001 doi: 10.1093 / gmo / 9781561592630.article.43335 (only via login).
  32. ↑ Eta Harich-Schneider, 1973, p. 63
  33. ^ William P. Malm, 1959, p. 44.
  34. ^ David W. Hughes: Wagon, 2001
  35. ^ William P. Malm, 1959, p. 44 f.
  36. ↑ David W. Hughes, 2014, p. 276
  37. ^ William P. Malm, 1959, p. 45.
  38. ^ Peter Ackermann: Japan. II. The arts of the great theaters and courts. 4. Gagaku. a. Characteristic. In: MGG Online. November 2016.
  39. ^ David Waterhouse: Japan. IV. Religious music. 2. Shinto. (i) Music of the imperial cult. In: Grove Music Online. 2001.
  40. ↑ Eta Harich Schneider, 1973, p. 247
  41. ^ William P. Malm, 1959, p. 94.
  42. ^ Alan Mallet: Japan. V. Court music. 3. Instruments. In: Grove Music Online, 2001 doi: 10.1093 / gmo / 9781561592630.article.43335 (only via login).