Tangstad and Heights of presidents and presidential candidates of the United States: Difference between pages

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This is a list of heights of United States presidential candidates.

U.S. customary units - Based on the Imperial system, commonly known as the English system or British system of measure. Units used here are feet (ft) & inches (in).
Metric is the International System of Units, commonly known as the "metric system." Units used here are meters.

2008

Most estimates put the height of Barack Obama, the nominee of the Democratic Party in the 2008 U.S. presidential election, between 6 ft 1 in and 6 ft 2 in (approximately 1.87 meters).^[1]^[2]

John McCain, the nominee of the United States Republican Party in the United States presidential election, 2008, is 5 ft 6 in (1.68 meters).^[3] Were McCain elected to the presidency, he would be the shortest president in 120 years and tied for the second-shortest president of all time.

The height difference between them is around seven inches (18 centimeters) with McCain being four inches (or 10 centimeters) shorter than the average height of all U.S. Presidents at 5 ft 10 in (178 cm): a number that has been rising along with the height of the general United States population.

Democratic Vice Presidential nominee Joseph Biden is 6 ft (1.83 meters) tall.^[4] Republican Vice Presidential nominee Sarah Palin is 5 ft 5 in (1.65 meters) tall. ^[5]

U.S. Presidents by height order

The average American male (2005 data) is 5 ft 9.2 in (1.76 m)^[6], with a slightly rising trend reflective of the rise in height of the general U.S. population. Incidentally, however, some of the tallest U.S. Presidents were of the young republic. The tallest First Lady was Eleanor Roosevelt, who was 5' 11" (1.83 m).

Rank	President	U.S. customary units	Metric
1	Abraham Lincoln	6 ft 3 3/4 in	1.93 m
2	Lyndon B. Johnson	6 ft 3½ in	1.92 m
3	Bill Clinton Thomas Jefferson	6 ft 2½ in	1.89 m
5	Chester A. Arthur George H. W. Bush Franklin D. Roosevelt George Washington	6 ft 2 in	1.88 m
X	Barack Obama	~6 ft 1 in	~1.87 m
9	Andrew Jackson Ronald Reagan	6 ft 1 in	1.85 m
11	James Buchanan Gerald Ford James Garfield Warren Harding John F. Kennedy James Monroe William Howard Taft John Tyler	6 ft 0 in	1.83 m
19	Richard Nixon	5 ft 11½ in	1.82 m
20	George W. Bush Grover Cleveland Herbert Hoover Woodrow Wilson	5 ft 11 in	1.80 m
24	Dwight D. Eisenhower	5 ft 10½ in	1.79 m
25	Calvin Coolidge Andrew Johnson Franklin Pierce Theodore Roosevelt	5 ft 10 in	1.78 m
29	Jimmy Carter Millard Fillmore Harry S. Truman	5 ft 9 in	1.75 m
32	Rutherford B. Hayes	5 ft 8½ in	1.74 m
33	William Henry Harrison James Polk Zachary Taylor	5 ft 8 in	1.73 m
36	Ulysses S. Grant	5 ft 7¾ in	1.72 m
37	John Adams John Quincy Adams William McKinley	5 ft 7 in	1.70 m
X	John McCain	5 ft 6 in	1.68 m^[7]
40	Benjamin Harrison Martin Van Buren	5 ft 6 in	1.68 m
42	James Madison	5 ft 4 in	1.63 m

Comparative table of heights of United States presidential candidates

TALLER candidate was inaugurated	SHORTER candidate was inaugurated
Candidates same height	Comparison data unavailable

Year	Winner	Height (Imperial)	Height (Metric)	Runner-up (by electoral vote count)	Height (Imperial)	Height (Metric)	Difference (Imperial)	Difference (Metric)
2004	George W. Bush	71 in5 ft 11 in	1.80 m	John Kerry	76 in6 ft 4 in	1.93 m	5 in	0.13 m
2000	George W. Bush	71 in5 ft 11 in	1.80 m	Al Gore*	72.5 in6 ft ½ in	1.84 m	1½ in	0.04 m
1996	Bill Clinton	74.5 in6 ft 2½ in	1.89 m	Bob Dole	72 in6 ft 0 in	1.83 m	1½ in	0.04 m
1992	Bill Clinton	74.5 in6 ft 2½ in	1.89 m	George H.W. Bush	74 in6 ft 2 in	1.88 m	½ in	0.01 m
1988	George H.W. Bush	74 in6 ft 2 in	1.88 m	Michael Dukakis	66 in5 ft 6 in	1.67 m	8 in	0.21 m
1984	Ronald Reagan	73 in6 ft 1 in	1.85 m	Walter Mondale	70.75 in5 ft 10¾ in	1.80 m	2¼ in	0.05 m
1980	Ronald Reagan	73 in6 ft 1 in	1.85 m	Jimmy Carter	69 in5 ft 9 in	1.75 m	4 in	0.10 m
1976	Jimmy Carter	69 in5 ft 9 in	1.75 m	Gerald Ford	73 in6 ft 1 in	1.85 m	4 in	0.10 m
1972	Richard Nixon	71.5 in5 ft 11½ in	1.82 m	George McGovern	73 in6 ft 1 in	1.85 m	1½ in	0.03 m
1968	Richard Nixon	71.5 in5 ft 11½ in	1.82 m	Hubert Humphrey	71 in5 ft 11 in	1.80 m	½ in	0.02 m
1964	Lyndon Johnson^[8]	75.5 in6 ft 3½ in	1.92 m	Barry Goldwater	72 in6 ft 0 in	1.83 m	3½ in	0.09 m
1960	John F. Kennedy	72 in6 ft 0 in	1.83 m	Richard Nixon	71.5 in5 ft 11½ in	1.82 m	1 in	0.01 m
1956	Dwight D. Eisenhower	70.5 in5 ft 10½ in	1.79 m	Adlai Stevenson	70 in5 ft 10 in	1.78 m	½ in	0.01 m
1952	Dwight D. Eisenhower	70.5 in5 ft 10½ in	1.79 m	Adlai Stevenson	70 in5 ft 10 in	1.78 m	½ in	0.01 m
1948	Harry S. Truman	69 in5 ft 9 in	1.75 m	Thomas Dewey	68 in5 ft 8 in	1.73 m	1 in	0.02 m
1944	Franklin D. Roosevelt	74 in6 ft 2 in	1.88 m	Thomas Dewey	68 in5 ft 8 in	1.73 m	6 in	0.15 m
1940	Franklin D. Roosevelt	74 in6 ft 2 in	1.88 m	Wendell Willkie	73 in6 ft 1 in	1.85 m	1 in	0.03 m
1936	Franklin D. Roosevelt	74 in6 ft 2 in	1.88 m	Alfred Landon	68 in5 ft 8 in	1.73 m	6 in	0.15 m
1932	Franklin D. Roosevelt	74 in6 ft 2 in	1.88 m	Herbert Hoover	71 in5 ft 11 in	1.80 m	3 in	0.08 m
1928	Herbert Hoover^[9]	71.5 in5 ft 11½ in	1.82 m	Al Smith	66 in5 ft 6 in	1.68 m	5½ in	0.13 m
1924	Calvin Coolidge	70 in5 ft 10 in	1.78 m	John W. Davis	72 in6 ft 0 in	1.83 m	2 in	0.05 m
1920	Warren G. Harding	72 in6 ft 0 in	1.83 m	James M. Cox	66 in5 ft 6 in	1.68 m	6 in	0.15 m
1916	Woodrow Wilson^[10]	71 in5 ft 11 in	1.80 m	Charles Evans Hughes	71 in5 ft 11 in	1.80 m	0 in	0 m
1912	Woodrow Wilson^[10]	71 in5 ft 11 in	1.80 m	Theodore Roosevelt^[11]	70 in5 ft 10 in	1.78 m	1 in	0.01 m
1908	William Howard Taft	71.5 in5 ft 11½ in^[12]	1.82 m	William Jennings Bryan	72 in6 ft 0 in	1.83 m	½ in	0.01 m
1904	Theodore Roosevelt^[11]	70 in5 ft 10 in	1.78 m	Alton B. Parker	72 in6 ft 0 in	1.83 m	2 in	0.05 m
1900	William McKinley	67 in5 ft 7 in	1.70 m	William Jennings Bryan	72 in6 ft 0 in	1.83 m	5 in	0.13 m
1896	William McKinley	67 in5 ft 7 in	1.70 m	William Jennings Bryan	72 in6 ft 0 in	1.83 m	5 in	0.13 m
1892	Grover Cleveland	71 in5 ft 11 in	1.80 m	Benjamin Harrison	66 in5 ft 6 in	1.68 m	5 in	0.12 m
1888	Benjamin Harrison^[13]	66 in5 ft 6 in	1.68 m	Grover Cleveland*	71 in5 ft 11 in	1.80 m	5 in	0.12 m
1884	Grover Cleveland	71 in5 ft 11 in	1.80 m	James G. Blaine
1880	James A. Garfield	72 in6 ft 0 in	1.83 m	Winfield Hancock	74 in6 ft 2 in	1.88 m	2 in	0.05 m
1876	Rutherford B. Hayes^[14]	68 in5 ft 8 in	1.72 m	Samuel Tilden*
1872	Ulysses S. Grant^[15]	68 in5 ft 8 in	1.73 m	Horace Greeley
1868	Ulysses S. Grant^[15]	68 in5 ft 8 in	1.73 m	Horatio Seymour
1864	Abraham Lincoln^[16]	76 in6 ft 4 in	1.92 m	George McClellan^[17]	66 in5 ft 6 in	1.68 m	10 in	0.25 m
1860	Abraham Lincoln^[16]	76 in6 ft 4 in	1.92 m	John C. Breckenridge
1856	James Buchanan	72 in6 ft 0 in	1.83 m	John C. Frémont
1852	Franklin Pierce	70 in5 ft 10 in	1.78 m	Winfield Scott	77 in6 ft 5 in	1.96 m	7 in	0.18 m
1848	Zachary Taylor^[11]	68 in5 ft 8 in	1.73 m	Lewis Cass
1844	James K. Polk^[18]	68 in5 ft 8 in	1.73 m	Henry Clay^[19]	73 in6 ft 1 in	1.85 m	5 in	0.13 m
1840	William Henry Harrison	68 in5 ft 8 in	1.73 m	Martin Van Buren^[20]	66 in5 ft 6 in	1.68 m	2 in	0.05 m
1836	Martin Van Buren^[20]	66 in5 ft 6 in	1.68 m	William Henry Harrison	68 in5 ft 8 in	1.73 m	2 in	0.05 m
1832	Andrew Jackson^[21]	73 in6 ft 1 in	1.85 m	Henry Clay^[19]	73 in6 ft 1 in	1.85 m	0 in	0 m
1828	Andrew Jackson^[21]	73 in6 ft 1 in	1.85 m	John Quincy Adams^[22]	67 in5 ft 7 in	1.70 m	6 in	0.15 m
1824	John Quincy Adams^[22]	67 in5 ft 7 in	1.70 m	Andrew Jackson^[21]*	73 in6 ft 1 in	1.85 m	6 in	0.15 m
1820	James Monroe^[23]	72 in6 ft 0 in	1.83 m	John Quincy Adams^[22]	67 in5 ft 7 in	1.70 m	5 in	0.13 m
1816	James Monroe^[23]	72 in6 ft 0 in	1.83 m	Rufus King	70 in5 ft 10 in	1.78 m	2 in	0.05 m
1812	James Madison^[14]	64 in5 ft 4 in	1.63 m	De Witt Clinton^[24]	75 in6 ft 3 in	1.91 m	11 in	0.28 m
1808	James Madison^[14]	64 in5 ft 4 in	1.63 m	Charles C. Pinckney
1804	Thomas Jefferson^[25]	74.5 in6 ft 2½ in	1.89 m	Charles C. Pinckney
1800	Thomas Jefferson^[25]	74.5 in6 ft 2½ in	1.89 m	Aaron Burr^[26]	66 in5 ft 6 in	1.68 m	8½ in	0.21 m
1796	John Adams^[27]	67 in5 ft 7 in	1.70 m	Thomas Jefferson^[25]	74.5 in6 ft 2½ in	1.89 m	7½ in	0.19 m
1792	George Washington^[28]	74 in6 ft 2 in	1.88 m	John Adams^[27]	67 in5 ft 7 in	1.70 m	7 in	0.18 m
1789	George Washington^[28]	74 in6 ft 2 in	1.88 m	John Adams^[27]	67 in5 ft 7 in	1.70 m	7 in	0.18 m

*Note: Won popular vote, but not election.

The taller man wins?

Presidents, like the U.S. population, have grown taller over time.
	Abraham Lincoln, the tallest President, was 6 ft 3¾ in (1.92 m).
	James Madison, the shortest President, was 5 ft 4 in (1.63 m).
	Graph of winner v. loser heights in Presidential elections from 1798 - 2004. (Click to enlarge)^{[original research?]}

The table above was created to compare the veracity of the folk wisdom about U.S. presidential politics that the taller of the two major-party candidates always wins or always wins since the advent of the televised presidential debate, since 1900, and so on.

An example of this view is included in a 2003 essay by New York Times writer Virginia Postrel about artificially increasing the height of growth-stunted children: "Still, being short does, on average, hurt a person's prospects...The tall guy gets the girl. The taller presidential candidate almost always wins."^[29]
A 1988 article in the Los Angeles Times fashion section about a haberdasher devoted to clothing shorter men included a variation of the tale: "Stern says he just learned that Dukakis is 5 feet, 8 inches. 'Did you know,' he adds, noticeably disappointed, 'that since 1900 the taller of the two candidates always wins?' "^[30]
A 1997 book called How to Make Anyone Fall in Love with You discusses the issue in a section about the importance of height, "What about height? One assumes the taller the better, because our culture venerates height. In fact, practically every president elected in the United States since 1900 was the taller of the two candidates."^[31]
"I remember the subversive effect the observation had on me that in every U.S. presidential race, the taller of the two candidates had been elected. It opened up space for a counterdiscourse to the presumed rationality of the electoral process."^[32]
A 1975 book called First Impressions: The Psychology of Encountering Others notes, "Elevator Shoes, Anyone? One factor which has a far-reaching influence on how people are perceived, at least in American society, is height. From 1900 to 1968 the man elected U.S. president was always the taller of the two candidates. (Richard Nixon was slightly taller than George McGovern.)"^[33]
The Psychology of Person Identification (published 1978) states, "They also say that every President of the USA elected since the turn of the century has been the taller of the two candidates (Jimmy Carter being an exception)."^[34]
A 1999 book, Survival of the Prettiest by Nancy Etcoff, repeated a version of the legend in a section on the power of heights, "...Since 1776 only [two Presidents,] James Madison and Benjamin Harrison[,] have been below-average height. The easiest way to predict the winner in a United States election is to bet on the taller man: in this century you would have had an unbroken string of hits until 1968 when Richard Nixon beat George McGovern."^[35]

Statistical breakdown

For the 46 elections in which the heights of both candidates are known, the taller candidate won 27 times (approximately 59 percent of the time), the shorter candidate won 17 times (approximately 37 percent of the time), and the candidates were the same height two times (about 4 percent of the time). Of those who were not President or Vice president at the time of the election, the popular vote was won by six who were shorter and sixteen who were taller. We might assume, however, that James Madison, the shortest President, was shorter than his opponent, and this would increase the number to seven for the shorter candidate.

It should be noted, however, that in three of the cases in which the shorter candidate won, the taller candidate actually received more popular votes but lost in the Electoral College; this happened in 1824, 1888, and 2000 (the other time that the electoral vote winner was not the popular vote winner was in 1876, for which we do not know the height of the loser).

So, of the 46 cases for which we have data, the taller candidate has won the popular vote 30 times (65 percent), and the shorter candidate only about 14 times (30 percent of them). This does constitute a statistically significant (p < .05) difference from chance by chi-square test, although this is not the case when electoral victors are considered.

If considering restricting to elections in the 20th and 21st centuries, only 8 out of 27 elections were won by the shorter candidate.

Outcome	Electoral vote winner	Popular vote winner
Taller won	59 percent	65 percent
Shorter won	37 percent	30 percent
Same height	4 percent	5 percent

Extremes

The tallest President elected to office was Abraham Lincoln (6'3 3/4", 1.92 m); the tallest President to originally enter the office by means other than election was Lyndon B. Johnson (6'3½", 1.91 m). The shortest President elected to office was James Madison (5'4", 1.62 m); the shortest President to originally enter the office by means other than election was Theodore Roosevelt (5'8", 1.74 m).

The tallest runner-up (of documented height) is Winfield Scott, who stood 6'5" (1.96 m) and lost the 1852 election to Franklin Pierce (5'10", 1.78 m). The title of shortest runner-up (of documented height) is shared by four men, all 5'6" (1.68 m): Aaron Burr, who lost to Thomas Jefferson in 1800; sitting President Martin Van Buren, who lost to William Henry Harrison, in 1840; sitting President Benjamin Harrison, who lost to Grover Cleveland in 1892; and James M. Cox, who lost to Warren G. Harding in 1920.

The largest height difference (when the heights of the winner and the runner-up are both known) was between the candidates of the 1812 election, when DeWitt Clinton stood 11 inches (0.28 m) taller than incumbent James Madison. The second-largest height difference was in the 1864 election, when Abraham Lincoln stood 10 inches (0.25 m) taller than his nearest rival, George McClellan.

References

^ Edward McClelland. "How Obama learned to be a natural". Salon Media Group. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
^ "Varying opinions on Obama's height".
^ "Medical Records Show McCain In General Good Health". AP. 2008-05-24. Retrieved 2008-06-10.
^ Joseph R. Biden Bio
^ [1]
^ MAverage Height for a Man Statistics 2005
^ http://wcbstv.com/campaign08/john.mccain.health.2.731119.html
^ Dallek, Robert, Lyndon B. Johnson: Portrait of a President (abridged edition), Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-515920-9 Google Print
^ Nash, George H., The Life of Herbert Hoover, W.W. Norton & Company, 1988. ISBN 0-393-02550-0. Google Print
^ ^a ^b Levin, Phyllis Lee, Edith & Woodrow: the Wilson White House, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. ISBN 0-7432-1158-8 Google Print
^ ^a ^b ^c Whitcomb, John and Claire Whitcomb, Real Life at the White House, Routledge (UK), 2002. ISBN 0-415-93951-8. Google Print
^ Sotos, John G. Taft and Pickwick: sleep apnea in the White House. Chest. 2003;124:1133-1142.Online copy
^ Loderhouse, Gary and Nelson Price, William Addison Hunter, Legendary Hoosiers: Famous Folks from the State of Indiana, Emmis Books, 1999. ISBN 1-57860-097-9 Google Print
^ ^a ^b ^c Phillips, Louis, Ask Me Anything About the Presidents, HarperCollins, 1992. ISBN 0-380-76426-1
^ ^a ^b King, Charles, The True Ulysses Grant, Philadelphia & London, J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1914. Google Print
^ ^a ^b Braden, Waldo W., Abraham Lincoln, LSU Press, 1993. ISBN 0-8071-1852-4
^ Miller, William J., "Review of McClellan's War: The Failure of Moderation in the Struggle for the Union by Ethan Rafuse," America's Civil War, http://www.historynet.com/acw/reviews/acwreview0306-1/
^ Behrman, Carol H. James K. Polk, Twenty-First Century Books, 2004. ISBN 0-8225-1396-X
^ ^a ^b Seymour, Charles C.B., Self-made Men, Harper & Brothers, 1858. (Available via Google Print)
^ ^a ^b Widmer, Ted and Arthur M. Schlesinger, Edward L. Widmer, Martin Van Buren, Times Books, 2005, p. 2. ISBN 0-8050-6922-4
^ ^a ^b ^c Remini, Robert V., Andrew Jackson, HarperCollins, 1969, p. 15. ISBN 0-06-080132-8
^ ^a ^b ^c Levy, Debbie, John Quincy Adams, Twenty-First Century Books, 2004, p. 28. ISBN 0-8225-0825-7
^ ^a ^b Whitcomb, John and Claire Whitcomb, Real Life at the White House, Routledge (UK), 2002. ISBN 0-415-93951-8
^ Cornog, Evan, The Birth of Empire: DeWitt Clinton and the American Experience, 1769-1828, ISBN 0-19-514051-6
^ ^a ^b ^c Macdonald, Zanne (ed.), Monticello Research Department, Monticello Report: Physical Descriptions of Thomas Jefferson, July 1992 http://www.monticello.org/reports/people/descriptions.html
^ Parton, James, The Life and Times of Aaron Burr, Houghton, Mifflin and company, 1888. Google Print
^ ^a ^b ^c Ferling, John E., John Adams: A Life, Owl Books, 1996, ISBN 0-8050-4576-7, p. 169. Google Print
^ ^a ^b Haworth, Paul Leland, George Washington, Kessinger Publishing, 2004, ISBN 1-4191-2162-6, p. 119. Google Print
^ Postrel, Virginia, "Going to Great Lengths," New York Times, August 31, 2003.
^ Los Angeles Times, Mar 25, 1988, pg. 7
^ Lowndes, Leil, How to Make Anyone Fall in Love with You, McGraw-Hill Professional, 1997, pp.174-175. ISBN 0-8092-2989-7Google Print
^ Telling the Truth: Evangelizing Postmoderns, edited by D.A. Carson, Zondervan, 2002, p. 83. ISBN 0-310-24334-3 Google Print
^ Kleinke, Chris L., First Impressions: The Psychology of Encountering Others, Prentice-Hall, 1975, p. 13. ISBN 0-13-318428-5 Google Print
^ Clifford, Brian R. and Ray Bull, The Psychology of Person Identification, Routledge & K. Paul, 1978, p. 115. ISBN 0-7100-8867-1. Google Print
^ Etcoff, Nancy, Survival of the Prettiest, New York, Anchor Books, 1999. ISBN 0-385-47942-5

External links

[1] Edward McClelland. "How Obama learned to be a natural". Salon Media Group. Retrieved 2008-07-15.

[2] "Varying opinions on Obama's height".

[AP-3] "Medical Records Show McCain In General Good Health". AP. 2008-05-24. Retrieved 2008-06-10.

[bidenimdb-4] Joseph R. Biden Bio

[palinimdb-5] [1]

[cdc-6] MAverage Height for a Man Statistics 2005

[7] ttp://wcbstv.com/campaign08/john.mccain.health.2.731119.html

[lbj-8] Dallek, Robert, Lyndon B. Johnson: Portrait of a President (abridged edition), Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-515920-9 Google Print

[hoover-9] Nash, George H., The Life of Herbert Hoover, W.W. Norton & Company, 1988. ISBN 0-393-02550-0. Google Print

[woodrow-10] Levin, Phyllis Lee, Edith & Woodrow: the Wilson White House, New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. ISBN 0-7432-1158-8 Google Print

[reallife-11] Whitcomb, John and Claire Whitcomb, Real Life at the White House, Routledge (UK), 2002. ISBN 0-415-93951-8. Google Print

[12] Sotos, John G. Taft and Pickwick: sleep apnea in the White House. Chest. 2003;124:1133-1142.Online copy

[littleben-13] Loderhouse, Gary and Nelson Price, William Addison Hunter, Legendary Hoosiers: Famous Folks from the State of Indiana, Emmis Books, 1999. ISBN 1-57860-097-9 Google Print

[askmeanything-14] Phillips, Louis, Ask Me Anything About the Presidents, HarperCollins, 1992. ISBN 0-380-76426-1

[usgrant-15] King, Charles, The True Ulysses Grant, Philadelphia & London, J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1914. Google Print

[lincoln-16] Braden, Waldo W., Abraham Lincoln, LSU Press, 1993. ISBN 0-8071-1852-4

[17] Miller, William J., "Review of McClellan's War: The Failure of Moderation in the Struggle for the Union by Ethan Rafuse," America's Civil War, http://www.historynet.com/acw/reviews/acwreview0306-1/

[18] Behrman, Carol H. James K. Polk, Twenty-First Century Books, 2004. ISBN 0-8225-1396-X

[selfmade-19] Seymour, Charles C.B., Self-made Men, Harper & Brothers, 1858. (Available via Google Print)

[martinvanb-20] Widmer, Ted and Arthur M. Schlesinger, Edward L. Widmer, Martin Van Buren, Times Books, 2005, p. 2. ISBN 0-8050-6922-4

[andrewjackson-21] Remini, Robert V., Andrew Jackson, HarperCollins, 1969, p. 15. ISBN 0-06-080132-8

[jqa-22] Levy, Debbie, John Quincy Adams, Twenty-First Century Books, 2004, p. 28. ISBN 0-8225-0825-7

[reallifewhitehouse-23] Whitcomb, John and Claire Whitcomb, Real Life at the White House, Routledge (UK), 2002. ISBN 0-415-93951-8

[24] Cornog, Evan, The Birth of Empire: DeWitt Clinton and the American Experience, 1769-1828, ISBN 0-19-514051-6

[jefferson-25] Macdonald, Zanne (ed.), Monticello Research Department, Monticello Report: Physical Descriptions of Thomas Jefferson, July 1992 http://www.monticello.org/reports/people/descriptions.html

[26] Parton, James, The Life and Times of Aaron Burr, Houghton, Mifflin and company, 1888. Google Print

[adams-27] Ferling, John E., John Adams: A Life, Owl Books, 1996, ISBN 0-8050-4576-7, p. 169. Google Print

[washington-28] Haworth, Paul Leland, George Washington, Kessinger Publishing, 2004, ISBN 1-4191-2162-6, p. 119. Google Print

[29] Postrel, Virginia, "Going to Great Lengths," New York Times, August 31, 2003.

[30] Los Angeles Times, Mar 25, 1988, pg. 7

[love-31] Lowndes, Leil, How to Make Anyone Fall in Love with You, McGraw-Hill Professional, 1997, pp.174-175. ISBN 0-8092-2989-7Google Print

[foucault-32] Telling the Truth: Evangelizing Postmoderns, edited by D.A. Carson, Zondervan, 2002, p. 83. ISBN 0-310-24334-3 Google Print

[1stimpress-33] Kleinke, Chris L., First Impressions: The Psychology of Encountering Others, Prentice-Hall, 1975, p. 13. ISBN 0-13-318428-5 Google Print

[personid-34] Clifford, Brian R. and Ray Bull, The Psychology of Person Identification, Routledge & K. Paul, 1978, p. 115. ISBN 0-7100-8867-1. Google Print

[35] Etcoff, Nancy, Survival of the Prettiest, New York, Anchor Books, 1999. ISBN 0-385-47942-5

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