Austronesian languages
The Austronesian languages form a very widespread language family with a total of around 1150 languages spoken by around 300 million people. In terms of the number of languages, Austronesian is only surpassed by the African Niger-Congo ; in terms of the number of speakers, it is the fifth largest language family on earth. Among the language families, Austronesian is only surpassed by the Indo-European languages in terms of its area from Madagascar to Easter Island , from Taiwan to New Zealand . The science that deals with the Austronesian languages and the cultures of their speakers is called Austronesian Studies .
The term Austronesian was coined by the Austrian ethnologist Wilhelm Schmidt and is derived from the Latin oyster "south wind" and the Greek nêsos "island".
Original home and expansion of the Austronesians
According to more recent research results (e.g. Adelaar 2005) a peculiar situation arises for the structure of Austronesian: There are eight to ten primary branches of Austronesian, all of which are spoken in Taiwan and together comprise only 21 languages with 330,000 speakers (see below : Classification). All other Austronesian languages belong to a single primary branch, Malayo-Polynesian with over 1,100 languages and around 300 million speakers. From this it can be concluded that the area of origin or at least the center of the beginning expansion of Austronesian was the island of Taiwan and adjacent areas of mainland China - Fujian , Guangdong . A 6,000-year-old Neolithic culture on Taiwan and the adjacent mainland with a specific ceramic is associated with the early Austronesians. From there, the Austronesian languages and their carriers, including their agrarian culture, spread over a millennia-long process, the main stages of which can be traced roughly in time:
- Taiwan 4000 BC Chr.
- Northern Philippines 3000 BC Chr.
- South Philippines, Sulawesi, Borneo, Timor 2500–2000 BC Chr.
- Melanesia, coasts of New Guinea 1200 BC Chr.
- Java, Sumatra, Malay Peninsula 1000 BC Chr.
- Mariana Islands, Micronesia 1000 BC Chr.
- Hawaii, Eastern Polynesia, Easter Island 300–400 AD
- Madagascar 700 AD (from Borneo)
- New Zealand 1200 AD
Today there are no traces of Austronesian languages to be found on the Chinese mainland. This can be explained by the cultural and linguistic pressure that the Chinese have exerted there for over 2,500 years. Also in Taiwan - where this pressure only started later - the Austronesians only represent a tiny minority of 330,000 compared to a Chinese-speaking population of 23 million speakers.
Proto-Austronesian
A first attempt to reconstruct the sound system and the vocabulary of the original Austronesian language ("Uraustronesian") was made by Otto Dempwolff in the 1930s - partly on the basis of research by Renward Brandstetter . In the 1970s Otto Christian Dahl made another attempt to reconstruct the “Proto-Austronesian” (see literature).
Relationships with other language families
According to Paul K. Benedict (1912–1997), together with the Tai-Kadai language family, they form the Austro-Tai macro family . This thesis is considered plausible in specialist circles, especially based on recent studies by Sagart (2004) and Ostapirat (2005, 2018).
Vocabulary in comparison
Below is a table comparing thirteen words as spoken in the Austronesian languages spoken in Taiwan , the Philippines , the Mariana Islands , Indonesia , Malaysia , East Timor , Papua , New Zealand , Hawaii , Madagascar , Borneo and Tuvalu :
German | one | two | three | four | person | House | dog | Street | Day | New | we | What | Fire |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Amish | cecay | tosa | tolo | sepat | tamdaw | luma | wacu | lalan | cidal | faroh | daycare | uman | namal |
Puyuma | sa | dua | telu | pat | taw | rumah | soan | dalan | wari | vekar | mi | amanai | apue, asi |
Tagalog | isa | dalawa | tatlo | apat | tao | bahay | aso | then | araw | bago | tayo | ano | apoy |
Central Bolano | saro | duwa | tulo | apat | tawo | harong | ayam | dalan | aldaw | ba-go | daycare | ano | kalayo |
Rinconada Bikolano | əsad | darwā | tolō | əpat | tawō | baləy | ayam | raran | aldəw | bāgo | kitā | onō | kalayō |
Cebuano | usa, isa |
duha | tulo | upat | tawo | balay | iro | dalan | adlaw | bag-o | daycare | unsa | kalayo |
Waray-Waray | United States | duha | tulo | upat | tawo | balay | ayam, ido |
dalan | adlaw | bag-o | daycare | anu | kalayo |
Hiligaynon | isa | duha | tatlo | apat | tawo | balay | I do | dalan | adlaw | bag-o | daycare | ano | kalayo |
Aklanon | isaea, zambilog, uno |
daywa, dos |
tatlo, tres |
ap-at, kwatro |
tawo | baeay | ayam | dayan | adlaw | bag-o | daycare | ano | kaeayo |
Kinaray-a | sara | darwa | tatlo | apat | tawo | balay | ayam | aragyan | adlaw | bag-o | daycare | ano | kalayo |
Tausug | hambuuk | duwa | do | upat | dew | bay | iru ' | Dan | adlaw | ba-gu | kitaniyu | unu | kayu |
Maranao | isa | dowa | t'lo | phat | taw | walay | aso | lalan | gawi'e | bago | tano | tonaa | apoy |
Kapampangan | metung | adwa | atlu | apat | dew | bale | asu | dalan | aldo | bayu | ikatamu | well | api |
Pangasinian | sakey | dua, duara |
talo, talora |
apat, apatira |
too | abong | aso | dalan | ageo | balo | sikatayo | anto | pool |
Ilokano | maysa | dua | tallo | uppat | tao | balay | aso | dalan | aldaw | baro | dateo | ania | apoy |
Ivatan | asa | dadowa | tatdo | apat | tao | vahay | chito | rarahan | araw | va-yo | yaten | ango | apoy |
Ibanag | tadday | dua | tallu | appa ' | tolay | balay | kitu | dalan | aggaw | bagu | sittam | anni | afi |
Yogad | tata | addu | tallu | appat | tolay | binalay | atu | daddaman | agaw | bagu | sikitam | gani | afuy |
Gaddang | antet | addwa | tallo | appat | tolay | balay | atu | dallan | aw | bawu | ikkanetam | sanenay | afuy |
Tboli | sotu | lewu | tlu | fat | dew | gunu | ohu | lan | kdaw | lomi | tekuy | tedu | ofih |
Malay | satu | dua | tiga | empat | orange | rumah, balai |
anjing | jalan | hari | baru | daycare | apa, anu |
api |
Javanese | siji | loro | têlu | papat | uwòng, tiyang |
omah, griyå, dalêm |
asu | såbå | dinå, dintên |
anyar, énggal |
adhéwé, slirå piyambak |
åpå, anu, punåpå |
gêni |
Sundanese | hiji | dua | tilu | opat | urang | imah | anjing | jalan | poe | anyar, enggal |
arurang | naon | seuneu |
Achinese | sa | duwa | lhèë | peuët | ureuëng | rumoh, balèë |
asèë | ret | uroë | barô | (geu) tanyoë | peuë | apuy |
Minangkabau | ciek | duo | tigo | ampek | urang | rumah | anjiang | labuah, jalan |
hari | baru | awak | apo | api |
Lampung | sai | khua | telu | pak | jelema | lamban | kaci | ranlaya | khani | baru | kham | api | apui |
Buginese | sedi | dua | tellu | eppa | dew | bola | asu | lalen | esso | baru | idi | aga | api |
Temuan | satuk | duak | tigak | empat | uwang, eang |
gumah, umah |
anying, koyok |
jalan | aik, haik |
bahauk | kitak | apak | apik |
Batak Toba | sada | dua | tolu | opat | halak | jabu | biang | dalan | ari | baru | hita | Aha | api |
Yawi | so | you where | tigo | pak | oghe | ghumoh, dumoh |
anjing | jale | aghi | baghu | kito | gapo | api |
Chamorro | håcha, maisa |
hugua | tulu | fatfat | taotao | guma | ga'lågu | chålan | ha'åni | nuebu | hita | håfa | guafi |
Motu | ta, tamona |
rua | toi | hani | dew | ruma | sisia | dala | dina | matamata | ita, ai |
dahaka | lahi |
Maori | tahi | rua | toru | wha | tangata | whare | kuri | era | ra | hou | taua | Aha | ahi |
Tuvaluan | tasi | lua | tolu | fa | toko | fale | pen | ala, do |
aso | fou | tāua | a | afi |
Hawaiian | kahi | lua | kolu | Ha | kanaka | hale | 'īlio | ala | ao | hou | kākou | Aha | ahi |
Banjarese | asa | duwa | talu | ampat | urang | rūmah | hadupan | heko | hǎri | hanyar | kami | apa | api |
Malagasy | isa | roa | telo | efatra | olona | trano | alika | lalana | andro | vaovao | isika | inona | afo |
Dusun | iso | duo | tolu | apat | tulun | walai, lamin |
tasu | ralan | tadau | wagu | tokou | onu / nu | tapui |
Kadazan | iso | duvo | tohu | apat | do | hamin | tasu | lahan | tadau | vagu | tokou | onu, nunu |
tapui |
Momogun | iso | duvo | tolu, tolzu |
apat | tulun, tulzun |
valai, valzai |
tasu | dalan | tadau | vagu | tokou | nunu | tapui, apui |
Tombonuwo | I do | duo | tolu | opat | lobuw | waloi | asu | ralan | runat | wagu | toko | onu | apui |
Iban | satu, sa, siti, sigi |
dua | tiga | empat | orange , urang |
rumah | ukui, uduk |
jalai | hari | baru | kitai | nama | api |
Sarawak Malay | satu, sigek |
dua | tiga | empat | orange | rumah | asuk | jalan | ari | baru | daycare | apa | api |
Terengganu Malay | se | duwe | term | pak | oghang | ghumoh, dumoh |
anjing | long | aghi | baghu | kite | mende, ape, gape, nape |
api |
The main branches of Austronesian
The Austronesian languages are classified into ten main branches in current research. Of these, nine branches are only represented in Taiwan ( Formosa languages , 330,000 speakers), the tenth - by far the most important in terms of the number of speakers - is the Malayo-Polynesian branch that spreads from Madagascar to Easter Island .
Austronesian million languages
There are around 30 Austronesian languages with at least one million speakers, 10 of which are spoken in the Philippines, 18 in Malaysia and Indonesia, and one in Madagascar. All Austronesian million languages belong to the Malayo-Polynesian subgroup and are listed in the Malayo-Polynesian languages article .
literature
- Alexander Adelaar, Nikolaus P. Himmelmann : The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar. Routledge, London 2005. ISBN 0-7007-1286-0 .
- Peter Bellwood: Early Agriculture and the Spread of Austronesian. In: Spectrum of Science . Heidelberg 1991, 9. ISSN 0170-2971 .
- Peter Bellwood: Prehistory of Indo-Malaysian Archipelago. Honolulu 1997, ISBN 0-8248-1883-0 .
- Paul K. Benedict: Austro-Thai Language and Culture. HRAF Press, New Haven 1975, ISBN 0-87536-323-7 .
- Renward Brandstetter: The relationship between Malagasy and Malay. In: Festschrift for the opening of the new canton school building in Lucerne. Räber, Luzern 1893 (Malaio-Polynesische Forschungen II), pp. 65-107.
- Renward Brandstetter: An Introduction to Indonesian Linguistics, being four essays by Renward Brandstetter, translated by C. O. Blagden. Royal Asiatic Society, London 1916 (Asiatic Society Monographs 15).
- Otto Christian Dahl: Proto-Austronesian . Student literature, Lund 1973.
- Otto Dempwolff: Comparative phonology of the Austronesian vocabulary . In: Journal of Native Languages . Volumes 15, 17 and 19. Berlin 1934–38.
- John Lynch: Pacific Languages. An Introduction. University of Hawaiʻi Press, Honolulu 1998, ISBN 0-8248-1898-9 (covers the Oceanic-Austronesian, Papuan and Australian languages).
- Wilhelm Schmidt: The linguistic relations of Oceania (Melanesia, Polynesia, Micronesia and Indonesia) in their meaning for ethnology . In: Mitteilungen der Anthropologische Gesellschaft in Wien, 1899, pp. 245–258.
- Wilhelm Schmidt: The language families and language areas of the world . Winter, Heidelberg 1926, ISBN 3-87118-276-1 .
Web links
- Ernst Kausen: The Classification of the Austronesian Languages ( MS Word ; 312 kB)
- Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database
Individual evidence
- ↑ Sagart, Laurent. 2004. "The higher phylogeny of Austronesian and the position of Tai-Kadai." Oceanic Linguistics 43, 411-440
- ^ Gerhard Jäger: Support for linguistic macrofamilies from weighted sequence alignment . In: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . tape 112 , no. 41 , October 13, 2015, ISSN 0027-8424 , p. 12752-12757 , doi : 10.1073 / pnas.1500331112 , PMID 26403857 , PMC 4611657 (free full text).
- ^ Reid, LA (2006). "Austro-Tai Hypotheses". Pp. 740-741 in Keith Brown (editor in chief), The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics , 2nd edition
- ↑ Ostapirat, Weera. 2005. "Kra-Dai and Austronesian: Notes on phonological correspondences and vocabulary distribution." Laurent Sagart, Roger Blench & Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, eds. The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archeology, Linguistics and Genetics . London: Routledge Curzon, pp. 107-131.
- ↑ Ostapirat, Weera. 2018. " Macrophyletic Trees of East Asian Languages Re examined ." In Ritsuko Kikusawa and Lawrence A. Reid (eds.) Let's Talk about Trees . Osaka: Senri Ethnological Studies, Minpaku. doi : 10.15021 / 00009006
- ↑ In the inscription of Kedukan Bukit , the numerals tlu ratus are mentioned as 300, tlu as 3. According to http://www.wordsense.eu/telu/ , 3 means telu , in both Malay and Indonesian languages; however, telu is rarely used.
- ↑ a b c d e f g h i Piwulang Basa Jawa Pepak, SB Pramono, hal 148, 2013