Education in China

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Chinese mother with her child

In China , as in the rest of the world, upbringing means imparting skills and the transmission of moral values . The values ​​of China - i.e. the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan) - are based on the principles of Confucianism to this day. The Confucianism v is a sixth in the late century. Ethical doctrine that emerged in BC and regulates human interaction. To a considerable extent, Confucian ethics also shape education .

Basic concepts of Chinese education

Age of Innocence and Age of Understanding

The Chinese anthropology of the child differentiates between two phases of life: an “age of innocence” and an “age of understanding”. Confucianism teaches that newborn babies are a gift from the gods, whose innate nature must be respected. In the “age of innocence”, which extends over the first 5–7 years of life, according to Confucian beliefs, children still lack the intelligence to be able to learn a lot. You will therefore be pampered and treated with great indulgence. During this phase of life, the mother always has the child close to her. Instead of diapers, toddlers wear kāidāngkù ( 開襠 褲  /  开裆 裤  - "slit pants"), pants with a slit in the crotch that allow the child to relieve themselves without having to undress.

As soon as the “Age of Understanding” is reached, strict discipline sets in. For boys, learning traditionally began with studying Confucius ' writings or with an agricultural or handicraft training; Girls were trained in household chores and the virtue of humility . During the imperial era, the daughters of the Han Chinese began to bind their feet at this age .

Today, with the "Age of Understanding", academic advancement begins for both sexes. Since parents are increasingly discovering the ability of young children to learn, the transition to the “age of understanding” is often set earlier today than it was in the 20th century.

family

A mandarin and his son (1870)

The family takes a fundamentally different position in Chinese thinking than in the western world. While in Western thinking the individual is the focus of the thought and value system, the family has a correspondingly high priority in Asian thinking. It is thought of as the primordial cell of society, and the ideology related to it, which is an ideology of the hierarchy, is drawing ever larger circles and is ultimately also applied to society as a whole and the state. Family relationships are less based on an emotional closeness or partnership that arises from an individually designed relationship between several people, but rather on social roles that in China are linked to variables such as the age and gender of the family members.

In Confucianism, the relationship between father and son is one of five “cardinal relationships” ( wǔlún , 五 倫  /  五 伦 ), and the one that represents the generation relationship . The high esteem for sons in China to this day is due to the fact that it was traditionally they who looked after their parents in old age, while the daughters leave their parents' home when they get married.

Filial piety (xiào)

A basic concept of Confucian ethics is xiào ( 孝 ), filial piety.

Family in China is traditionally based on a generational contract to this day. The younger generation owes its life to the older generation, it owes it food, clothing, education, in short: everything it has. For the younger generation this is a lifelong burden; it is subordinate to the older one, obliged and owed her obedience. Your job is to make the older generation proud and happy, to serve the elderly and to provide for them as they age. It is the job of the elderly to care for the younger ones and to instruct and guide them responsibly.

Filial piety is a central educational goal and is considered a key indicator of how much sense of responsibility, maturity and reliability a person has. Confucius and Mengzi consider it permissible for children to contradict their parents, but they must do so with mindfulness and in accordance with the rules of courtesy.

These principles continue to work to the present day:

“Filial piety in East Asia today is at once a family practice, an ideology, and a system of regulating power relations. As practiced in the family, filial piety defines a hierarchical relationship between generations, particularly that of the parent and the child. In this ordered space, filial piety prescribes the ideology of devotion by the grateful child to the parent, and also places debt and obligation at the heart of the discourse on parent-child relationships. Contemporary filial piety is in this sense not merely a vestige of a past family custom, but an ongoing practice of surveillance and control that unleashes considerable disciplinary power. Using a discourse of gratitude and indebtedness, a hierarchy of power is reproduced in everyday life, privileging the old over the young and the parent over the child. "

“In East Asia, filial piety is at the same time an educational practice, ideology and a system of regulating power relations. When practiced in the family, filial piety defines a hierarchical relationship between the generations, especially between parent and child. In this orderly space, filial piety denotes the ideology of submission that the grateful child shows to the parent, and it carries the great things debt and obligation into the heart of the discourse about the parent-child relationship. Modern filial piety, in this sense, is not so much a remnant of ancient family customs, but rather a current practice of surveillance and control that unleashes considerable disciplinary power. Where there is a discourse of gratitude and obligation, a hierarchy of power is reproduced in everyday life that privileges the old over the young and the parent over the child. "

- Charlotte Ikels : Filial Piety

The boys' obligation is by no means limited to that of their father and mother. In Chinese thinking, the individual is understood as the product of all previous generations; in this respect it also owes its ancestors. In practice, this means adherence to rituals and customs such as ancestor worship , family celebrations and mourning rituals .

Character (sùzhì)

Another central term in Chinese pedagogy is Sùzhì ( 素質  /  素质 , for example: “quality of people”, “ character ”). A person who possesses Sùzhì has certain qualities in the areas of behavior, education, ethics and ambition. There are some who lack Sùzhì , especially those who are obviously unpolished; While the narrow-minded and bigots then believe that nothing can be done about it, the general opinion in China is that Sùzhì can be encouraged or practiced through education. Sùzhì jiàoyù ( 素質 教育  /  素质 教育 ) is the upbringing of character and describes a comprehensive upbringing with a strong emphasis on moral upbringing, but alongside which ideological, physical and higher intellectual aspects, such as problem solving and other analytical skills, also play a role . Sùzhì jiàoyù is differentiated from Yìngshì jiàoyù ( 應試 教育  /  应试 教育 ), an education that is purely aimed at exams. The educational psychologist Yan Guocai ( Shanghai University of Education ) distinguished three groups of Sùzhì in 2009 :

  • Zìrán sùzhì ( 自然 素質  /  自然 素质 ), the natural quality that is innate and also includes the physical state (Shēntǐ sùzhì, 身體素質  /  身体素质 ).
  • Xīnlǐ sùzhì ( 心理 素質  /  心理 素质 ), the psychological quality in which innate emotional and mental states are combined with those brought about by upbringing.
  • Shèhuì sùzhì ( 社會 素質  /  社会 素质 ), the social quality that is brought about through education and the political character (Zhèngzhì sùzhì, 政治 素質  /  政治 素质 ), the intellect (Sīxiǎng sùzhì, 思想 素質  /  思想 素质 ), the moral character (Dàodé sùzhì, 道德 素質  /  道德 素质 ), professional performance (Yèwù sùzhì, 業務 素質  /  业务 素质 ), taste (Shěnměi sùzhì, 審美 素質  /  审美 素质 ) and ability (láojì sùzhì, 勞 技 素質  /  劳 劳素质 ) includes.

The term Sùzhì has been widely used in China since the time of the Republic of China and has since played a major role in the country's social discourse on civic responsibility and morality. In contrast to the strongly individualistic mainstream education of the Western world , Chinese character education is always geared towards the common good, towards the functioning of society.

Concepts related to Sùzhì include Jiàoyǎng ( 教養  /  教养 , "education") and Xiūyǎng ( 修養  /  修养 , "sophistication").

Training (jiāo xùn) and steering (guǎn)

The American psychologist Ruth K. Chao , who has endeavored since the 1990s to make Chinese education accessible to a Western audience, describes this education as "training" ( jiāoxùn , 教訓  /  教训 ) and "directing, guiding, guiding" ( guǎn , 管 ). Jiāoxùn is the training of the child in self-discipline, good work habits and, in general, in the behavior that is expected of him. Guǎn means leading, although this term lacks the connotation often associated with drill and the autocratic abuse of power in the West ; guǎn also means “to love” and “to provide”.

Dimensions of Chinese Education

Academic achievement

Boy studying ( Republic of China Period )

One of the central goals of Chinese education is traditionally and to this day high academic achievement. Children who do not achieve top marks are considered mediocre by their parents. Since the Ming period, China had a merit civil service that enabled learned sons, who passed the extremely demanding civil service examination ( kējǔ , 科舉  /  科举 ), a social advancement that was theoretically independent of social class. The test was abolished in 1905, and after the founding of the People's Republic of China, the old merit principle was replaced by the principle of personal connections ( guānxi , 關係  /  关系 ). The Cultural Revolution in 1966 went hand in hand with the closure of universities and can be described as an attempt to completely abolish higher education.

Today, education is once again very popular in the People's Republic of China.

Role of father and mother

Couple with two children (1958)

Traditionally - that is, strictly Confucian - the father was the head of the family in China. He took on responsibility for upbringing as soon as the child reached the “age of understanding” and, above all, exercised this role with rigor. The mother, on the other hand, who had been solely responsible for the child up to this point, was mostly milder; she was still responsible for caring for the child. Since women in China are now more often employed than in the past, this division of roles is currently softening slightly.

Family networks are generally more closely knit in China than in the West. Mothers are often supported in bringing up their children by relatives, but also by nannies. In large families, older siblings also take on care and upbringing.

Educational means and educational consequences

The most important educational tool in China is criticism (pīpíng, 批評  /  批评 ). In China, criticism is not an invention of the CCP or the Cultural Revolution , but was already firmly anchored in Confucianism. Confucianism promotes criticism as a means of cultural learning and the support of social values. Criticism is omnipresent and normal in everyday and social life in China and feels less harsh there than, for example, in Chinese society. B. in western cultures. Children to praise , is traditionally less common because it is considered immodest or could attract the attention of evil spirits. Traditionally, parents often even speak derogatory about their children.

A traditional punishment for violating family obligations is to lock the child out of the house for a limited time.

The emotions through which the Chinese upbringing forms the child are above all feelings of social obligation and shame . Chinese children learn to control their emotions at an early age . They are more emotionally connected to their families than western children and therefore less independent, but their emotions are milder and more stable because they are always shared with other people.

Influence of socialist politics

There is widespread agreement among Chinese educationalists that both socialism and reform and opening- up policies have influenced traditional educational practices shaped by Confucianism, but have not fundamentally changed them. To this day, young Chinese take responsibility for their aging parents. In 2016, 75% of people over 60 lived either in the household of a child or in the immediate vicinity.

In 1979/1980, the one-child policy , which was gradually introduced, brought about a sharp change in the lives of Chinese families. This measure coincided with the reform and opening up, and especially since city children were born from this point on, often in affluent circumstances arose in the Chinese public discourse about the "little emperors" ( xiǎohuángdì , 小皇帝 ): only children who in Growing up in material abundance and being excessively spoiled by their parents and grandparents - because they are so few . In contrast to western cuddly children, however, the new Chinese only children carried a burden of immense expectations and were sent to preschool programs and "children's palaces " ( shàoniángōng , 少年宮  /  少年宫 ) by their parents at a very early age , which were supposed to prepare them for the traditionally very tough selection in Chinese education . While the media worked on bizarre individual cases and concluded from these that character education was going down, scientific studies have not confirmed such tendencies.

In 2016, the legal regulation was relaxed; Since then, couples have been allowed to have 2 children.

Education in rural areas

Peasant family (drawing by William Alexander, around 1800)
Farm Boy (1900)

For long stretches of history, the rural population in China has been subject to repeated famine and is extremely poor. In the imperial era , it was not unusual for rural families to sell children in need . The children of the rural population were needed as agricultural workers; Education and advancement into the civil service class was hardly possible for them.

Even today, the People's Republic of China has one of the world's largest urban-rural income gaps. In 2009 the median urban income was 2.33 times higher than the median rural income. A great many rural residents therefore go to work in the cities. Many cannot take their children with them and have to leave them with relatives. It is estimated that in 2013 more than 61 million children in the People's Republic of China lived in rural areas without their parents.

As Peggy A. Kong pointed out, parents who live in rural areas of the People's Republic of China now play a major role in their children's education and strive to create good learning conditions for them. Under the impression of the economic and social change that is taking place in China, they want their children to leave the village and lead a better life than they do themselves. The opportunities for advancement in the countryside are so far limited; If they stay in the village, peasant children can at best hope for a position as lower party cadre , teacher or skilled worker. Since social status and prosperity in rural areas largely depend on which family one belongs to, Chinese farming families still play a large part in the choice of partners for their sons and daughters.

Chinese upbringing from a western perspective

Worldwide interest in Chinese education

The interest of the non-Chinese public in the principles of Chinese education has increased significantly in recent years. In the United States , children of Asian immigrants make up a significant proportion of the student body at top universities such as Harvard (16–19%), Stanford (24%), and MIT (27%). The controversies that arose in the USA after the publication of Amy Chua's book The Mother of Success (2011) should be understood against this background .

International attention was also given to the rapid increase in supplementary private tuition in China in the first decade of the 21st century. In 2007, for the first time in China, there were no longer enough places in public kindergartens for the three-year-olds due to a particularly high birth cohort. Since pupils from Shanghai achieved top results in all subjects in the PISA studies of 2009 and 2012 and since then Hong Kong , Macau , Taiwan and the People's Republic of China have always performed better than Germany, Austria and Switzerland, the Attention to Chinese education has grown.

Western-Chinese misunderstandings

Authoritarian or authoritative parenting style

Because Chinese parents demand obedience from their children and are strict in a certain sense , their parenting style is often classified as authoritarian by Western authors . As Ruth K. Chao showed in 1993, this classification is based on a very ethnocentric view that is hardly interested in deeper insights into the how and why of Chinese education. Chinese parents, when they bring up a strict upbringing, are in no way concerned with power or oppression; they act out of sympathy for the child, as is the case with Western parents. Chao has shown that Chinese upbringing is closer to the authoritative upbringing style of Western families than to an authoritarian upbringing. The validity of the chaos assumption that the authoritative upbringing of Chinese parents is often incorrectly classified as authoritarian is also supported by the findings of a study that showed in 1998 that the “authoritarian” educated children of Chinese Americans by no means poorer school results than those brought up more patiently; in non-Asian American children, authoritarian upbringing has been shown to be associated with poor academic performance.

A 1997 study in Beijing confirmed that in China, too, an authoritative style of upbringing produces children who are more peaceful, socially and academically more successful than children raised by their parents in an authoritarian manner. A study carried out in Hong Kong in 1998 only partially confirms this finding.

Concept of freedom

From the western point of view, the element of individual freedom is missing in Chinese education . In the history of Western ideas , thinkers such as Rousseau , Kant , Tocqueville , Mill and Friedman have secured the concept of freedom an ever greater importance since the 18th century. It is true that Chinese thought also knows a concept of freedom; however, this is embedded in Confucian ethics and describes the freedom of choice to do or not to do good. The special implications that “freedom” has in Western thinking today (e.g. freedom for self-realization ) are absent in Chinese. Compared to Western upbringing, Chinese upbringing leaves the child with little individual freedom and little scope for individual decisions. Even if the child develops differently than expected, Chinese parents are more concerned than Western parents.

Verbal expressiveness vs. contextual implicit

Asian cultures are generally characterized by strong contextuality; Information there often does not consist of explicit verbal messages, but rather references to contexts. While the spoken word plays a central role in Western education, Chinese parents and teachers do not make verbose explanations to children, but rather demonstrate good behavior and set an example for them . Since love is not expressed in words and gestures (such as hugs), but contextually , e.g. For example, by caring for someone - especially with food - people of western culture sometimes misinterpret this subordination of what is explicitly spoken as an expression of emotional coldness or of repressive etiquette .

literature

  • Liu Weihua, Zhang Xinwu: Harvard Girl Liu Yiting: a character training record / Harvard Girl (original title: 哈佛 女孩 刘亦婷: 素质 培养 纪实, Hāfó Nǚhái Liú Yìtíng: sùzhì péixùn jìshí ), 2000
  • Yin Jianli: A Good Mom Is Better Than a Good Teacher / Good Mom, Good Teacher (Original title: 好 妈妈 好 老师, hǎo māmā hǎo lǎoshī ), 2009
  • Amy Chua: The mother of success. How I taught my kids to win. Translated from English by Barbara Schaden. 5th edition. Nagel & Kimche, 2011, ISBN 978-3-312-00470-6 .

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