Indian weights and measures

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A certain standardization of Indian weights and measures can be proven for the earliest times. Over the centuries, an indigenous system developed, which was supplemented by the dimensions and weights of the respective invaders. Regionally, the units differed greatly from one another. The colonial rulers began to standardize the dimensions for British India in 1833 and in parallel their own imperial system in 1870 . The metric system alone has been permitted in the Indian Union since 1962 . It was later introduced in the other successor states of Bangladesh (July 1982), Pakistan (1967), Maldives , Sri Lanka and Nepal . Besides the USA, Burma is almost the only country in the world that has not yet switched to meters.

Antiquity

Excavations of the Indus civilization have unearthed numerous weights in Mohenjo-Daro , Harappa and Chanhu-Daro . These seem to have been standardized. They differ little from one another and show hardly any differences even for different times (layers of the excavation). The most common weight is around 13.7 g. Rulers show divisions of 33.5 mm with only minimal deviations.

Paternoster peas, as weights rati.

On the basis of the Vedic writings (approx. 1500–500 BC), especially the Puranas , researchers of the 19th century assumed that the ratio of the seeds of the pea pea ( Abrus precatorius ) served as the original standard weight . The weight of 320 rati corresponded to 960 grains of barley. The dried seeds of the Urd bean ( Vigna mungo , Sanskrit māṣa ) are said to have served as the basis of the second unit Masha . The dharana (from dhṛi “to hold”) can also be found with the synonym purana (“old”) in the law of Manu . The use of the decimal shatamana ("100 units", i.e. rati ) indicates later, Aryan influences . In Kamasutra a hollow or weight measure 1 is Karsha (about 11 g) = ¼  Pala = 1/32 prashtra mentioned.

Subdivisions: 1 Rati = 3 Yava ("small grain of barley") = 18 Gaura-Sarshapa = 54 Rdja-Sarshapa = 162 Liksha ("poppy seeds") = 1296  Trasarenu.
Multiples: 1) for copper: 80 rati = 1 Karshapana , 2) for silver: 320 Rati = 160 Mashaka = 10 Dharana = 1 Shatamana, 3) gold: 3200 Rati = 640 Masha = 40 Suvarna = 10 Nishka = 1 Dharana.

Later, similar systems based on other seeds, such as rice (64 polished grains chowal = 32 non-hulled dhan = 8 rati = 1 masha), wheat, mustard seeds or various beans, if one takes the traditional number of dried grains, show one surprisingly small deviation from each other and from the standard coins obtained.

time

In the “Law of Manu” there is the following classification for times:
18 nimesha (wink) = 1 kashtha, 30 of these = 1 kala, 30 kalas = 1 kshana, 12 kshanas = 1 muhurta, 30 muhurtas (5.832 million times winking) a day or night.

Maghada

For the Magadha empire (around 550 BC), which was not under Aryan influence , the following relationships were calculated on the basis of a Sanskrit
text : 163840 Rati = 32768 Masha = 512 Pala = 16 Maghada Pratha = 4 Ataka = 1 Drona

Indo-Greeks

The weights of the Indo-Greek (2nd – 1st century BC) and Graeco-Bactrian empires in the northwest around Gandhara were based on the drachma .

Ceylon

The early dimensions of the island can be found in the Abhidhanappadipika Moggallanas , a Pali vocabulary from the 12th century. Their names are based on Indian models, although not every unit was used for all goods:
800,000 Gunja (seed from Abrus precatorius ) = 400,000 Masaka ( Phaseolus sp. ) = 160,000 Akkha ( Terminalica bellerica ) = 20,000 Dharana = 4,000 Suvarna (for gold) = 2000  Phala = 1000 Nikkha (an ornament) = 20 Tula = 1 Bhara ("burden").

Measures of length should have applied: 162 angula = 14 vidhatti (" span ") = 7 hattha or rattana (" cubit " measured from the elbow to the tip of the little finger) = 1 yatthi.

Hindu system

The basic unit was the tola ( skr .: tolaka ), in classical Sanskrit literature it is mentioned primarily as a weight for precious metals. There has been speculation about a connection between the origin of the word and the Chinese tael . The larger unit was the Seer ( sihr, skr .: setak ), which could contain, depending on 30, 40, 72, 80, 90 or 120 Tola.

The traditional names remained in use for a longer period in southern India. Measurements based on natural sizes (handful: mushṭi; sheep or goat skin ) remained common well into the 19th century, especially in remote areas with barter.

The basis of the length dimensions was, as in Europe, Elle Hattha (ger .: cubit , skr .: hasta ), with two spans ( Vitasti BEZW). 24 finger widths ( angula ). The latter was further subdivided into 8 jo ("grains", Skr .: yava ). The smallest (imaginary) unit was the parāmanus , the size of an atom. On larger units, four hasta formed a danḍa, 2000 of them a kroṣa ( kos ) which was about 3650 m long. Four krosa gave a yojana that was divided into two gavyūti . Calculations from different texts compared to modern maps result in shorter lengths for the Yojana, about 13-14 km.

The following was derived as area measure: 10 hattha = 1 ban (“bamboo”). 20 square ban = 1 niranga.

Arabic language system

In the Mughal Empire , the weights common in Persia were the man (maund) and the seer (from Hindi: setak ). However, these differed greatly from one another regionally. A man in the Persian Tabriz only weighed around 3050 g, whereas in Palloda ( Ahmednagar ) it weighed almost 74 kg. Regionally different names were used for the units.

For the reign of Akbar , the division 1 Man = 40 Seer of 30 dam each is documented. The latter are in turn in 5 tank of 24 Rati shared. Eight of these corresponded to a māsha, which were taken as the basis for the standard coin. The Man Akbar had ≈ 25 kg.

The usual measure of gaz ("Elle", also guz or gudge ) in the Arab culture became longer and longer over time. At the time of Hārūn ar-Raschīd , as defined earlier in Egypt and among the Jews with 24 to 25 "fingers" (≈ 47 cm), it probably had 41 "fingers" under Akbar, thus almost 87 cm. The definition of Sikander bin Bahlol Lodi (1488–1547) determined the length of a gaz to be 76.25 cm. For the early 19th century, lengths between 74.2 and 85.6 cm are given. The bigha derived from it was important for land taxation . The fields in Bengal were measured as 5 × 6 “rods” (or square) each 14 cubits, the length of which therefore had a decisive influence on the size of a bigha. The tax was calculated per bigha, a shortening of the rod ( jurib ) could result in massive tax increases. The old Bigha size for Upper India and Patna was 2527 m², in Bengal, Bihar and Central India the small Bigha of around 1335 m² was valid. In southern India, the mauny was 60 × 40 feet. 24 Mauny formed a Cawney (5436 m²), which corresponded exactly to four Bengali Bigha. Another South Indian measure of length was the ady (foot of ≈ 26.5 cm) from Malabar. The calculation of the area was 24 square Ady = 1 Culy . 100 square culy = 1 cawney. In the area of ​​the Bombay Presidency , the gaz varied between 45.7 and 68.6 cm.

It was also common to define a field for tax purposes by determining the number of seeds needed to sow a unit of area. Naturally, this varied enormously. Manipulation was a lucrative source of income for tax collectors. In Mysore, where the following applied to grain: 1 Khaṇdi = 20 koḷaga = 80 Baḷḷa = 160 seer, 64,000 square yards were used as the basis for unwatered land that could be planted with one Khaṇdi seed, and 10,000 (8354 m²) for irrigated land. the tax for the latter was therefore 6½ times higher.

In later times, roughly four regional divisions for weights can be distinguished: 1) for Bengal: 1 Man = 40 Seer ≈ 36.2 kg, 2) Ajmer and Merwar: 1 Man = 20 Seer ≈ 18.1 kg, 3)  Gujarat and Bombay: 1 Man = 40 (small) Seer (to 30 pies ) ≈ 12.68 kg (for 1 Bombay Maund you got around 1 Maund 1 Seer in Bengal) and 4) Southern India (locally different): 1 Maund = 15– 64 Seer.

20 Maund were called Kandy ( khandi ). The terms puseri, dhuri and vis (numerous spelling variants ) usually refer to five Seer, but could also correspond to 4, 4½, 5¾, 10, 11 or 12 Seer in different places.

Measurements of measure as separate units were completely unknown in Bengal. In the south and west one referred instead to a vessel that held a certain weight of a grain mixture. The most common were mercal (Madras 1821: ≈ 12.29 l) and parā (in Calcutta: ferrā ). On Ceylon , a mercal held ≈ 13.09 l. 1 parā had 2 mercals.

British India

Note: The spelling of place names follows that which was usual in colonial times.

The British in Bengal calculated for accounting purposes from about 1787 in Factory maunds of the three about 200 lb. were equated. This was in the ratio of 100: 116 to the usual weight in the bazaar. An “old bazaar mouth” was 74 lb. 10 oz. 10⅔ gr.

In Madras the mouth was only 25 lb. The lake in Madras was divided into 8 pollam and 10 pagodas . 10 Madras Maunds therefore corresponded to around 3 Maund 1½ Seer in Bengal. On the Malabar coast , however, the rule was: 2½ pollam (= fanam ) like a lake . From this it follows: 1 tolam (= maund) corresponds to 10.506 kg (23.192 lb). Other local Maunds, often in use until the conversion to meters, weighed converted: Bengal (Bazar): 37.206 kg, Bengal (Factory): 33.824 kg, Calcutta (Factory): 37.711 kg, Karachi : 36.240 kg (= 80 lb.) , Poona : 35.722 kg, Surat : 16.308 kg, Mysore : 10.993-12.642 kg (1 maund = 40-46 seer).

1833

The British introduced legal standardization based on the Troy system for the first time on January 1, 1826 . The Bengali Regulation VII of 1833 (in force in 1835) standardized measures and weights for all government business transactions. Act XVII of 1835 sets the gross weight of the new rupee (Rp.) Equal to 1 tola to 180  grain . The old sicca (from 1773) and the rupees of the Mughals were replaced. Even today, market prices are often expressed in units of weight per rupee, e.g. B. "8 seer Reis", d. H. a change to “4 seer” per cent would correspond to a doubling of the price. The rule put a Maund ( Hindi : Man ) equal to 100 lb., respectively. 35 seer almost equal to 72 lb. This newly defined "British Maund" was also called the new bazaar Maund to distinguish it . According to this standard, 100 old factory maunds corresponded to 90,744 new maunds . In relation to the new tola (T.) the following applies (100 T. = 100.185 of the old Sikka weight): 1 lb. = 32 tons, 1 kg = 85.745 tons, 1 Cologne mark = 20.044 tons. Salt was traditionally charged at 82 tons per seer . A mouth of salt was therefore 2½% heavier than the standard unit.

Indian English (1833)
lb./oz./dwt./gr. 		Metric (g)
Maund 40 Seer 100/0/0/0 100 lb. 37320.182
Seer 16 chitak 2/6/0/0 2.5 lb. 933.005
Chitak
Kacha (in Bengal) 		5 tola 0/1/17/12 1.875 oz. 58.310
Tola (rupee) 12 Masha 0/0/7/12 7.5 dwt. 11.662
Masha 8 ruti 0/0/0/15 15 gr. 0.972
Ruti 0/0/0 / 1.875 1,875 gr. 0.122

In French India , a hat was considered to be 2 empans of 12 inches, or 51.97 cm.

1870

The Indian Weights and Measures Act created the legal basis for the British ("imperial") system. 1 kg = 2.205 lb. = 35.274 oz. = 564.384 dram = 15432.358 grain. Its units were mainly used in the professional and official areas, the old units remained permissible and in use in the markets. Distances along the country roads were given in miles and furlong . The ratio 1 Maund = 40 Seer = 100 lb. and 1 Seer = 80 tola = 2.0571 lb. was codified.

Tola: 1) Gold and silver weight in East India, originally the weight of the Bombay, resp. Siccarupie from 179 to 179½ English Troygrene = 11.599-11.642 g; In Bombay it is divided into 100 Goonze of 6 Chows, in Calcutta into 12 Mascha of 8 Röttihs (Ruttees) of 4 Dhan;
2) Normal or new bazaar weight in Calcutta, à 16 Anna = 180 English Troygrän = 11.664 g. Its upper levels Sihr and Maund form the trading weight.
1939-42

The Standards of Weights Act (1939) came into force in 1942. The Indian Tola-Seer-Maund system continued to exist alongside the British one. As part of their self-determination, individual provinces issued their own statutory regulations for calibrations, etc. B. Bombay Weights and Measures Act 1932, or Punjab Weights and Measurements Act (No. 12 of 1940), which already allowed a partial conversion to the metric system. The Indian Decimal Society in particular , with its general secretary PN Seth , campaigned for the changeover.

Metric system

In 1955, the Indian Coinage Act was passed, which changed the Indian rupee to decimal denominations on April 1, 1957. The Government of the Union of India passed a Standards of Weights and Measures Act in 1956 , which set the transition to October 1958. From October 1960, metric labeling had to be used; since April 1962, the standard has been the only one permitted. The ratio was 1 Seer = 0.93310 kg, 1 Tola = 11.66375 g. States have additional regulations.

The current basis is the law of the same name (No. 60) of 1976, which took over the SI units and which was changed in 1985 by implementing provisions. Numerous supplementary provisions were added. The National Physical Laboratory of India, is the defining authority, calibrated weights and measures are made from the state coins. The Legal Metrology Act (2009) changed the standard material for these weights from brass to steel.

Furthermore, the bill in lakh is 100,000 and crore (= 100 lakh) for 10 million. The usual spelling takes getting used to, 12 million are z. B. represented as follows: 1.20.00000.

See also

literature

  • Cover, CE; Indian Weights and Measures; 1865
  • Jervis, TB; Weights of India; Bombay 1836
  • Prinsep, James; Coins, Weight and Measures of British India. Useful Tables Forming an Appendix to the Journal of the [Bengal] Asiatic Society; 2nd supplemented edition. Calcutta 1840. Digitized
  • Sharma, VL; Bhardwaj, HC; Weighing Devices in Ancient India , Indian Journal of History of Science, Vol. 24 (1989), pp. 329-336
  • Thomas, Edward; Ancient Indian Weights as: Marsden's Numismata Orientalia: A new Edition, Part 1; London 1874. Digitized
  • Henry Thomas Colebrooke : Miscellaneous Essays . Ed. Edward Cowell. Trübner & Co, London, 1873. Vol. I, pp. 528-543. Digitized

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Shigeo Iwata: Weights and Measures in the Indus Valley . In: Helaine Selin (Ed.): Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures . 2nd Edition. 2008, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2 , pp. 2254f.
  2. ^ Ian Whitelaw: A Measure of All Things: The Story of Man and Measurement; London u. a. 2007, ISBN 978-0-312-37026-8 , pp. 14f.
  3. ↑ Syn: Abrusbohne, Jequirity seeds; English: Indian liquorice or "crab's eye"
  4. ↑ cf. Carob tree and carat
  5. ↑ a measure that is also found as the basis of the oldest unit of the Tibetan currency, the Srang .
  6. ↑ Cunningham: Numismatic Chronicle . 1873, p. 197
  7. ^ Romanized in: Weber: Treatises of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin . Berlin 1862, p. 82
  8. ↑ a b Thomas William Rhys Davids : On the Ancient coins and measures of Ceylon . London 1877. Sert .: Numismata Orientalia
  9. ↑ engl. Exercise full text
  10. ^ GW Trail: Report on the Bhutea Mahals of Kumaon . In: Asiatik Researches , Vol. XVII, p. 24. Harcourt: Kooloo, Lahool and Spiti . P. 249
  11. ↑ a b c Detailed regional lists in the tables from: Coins, Weight and Measures (1834)
  12. ↑ The manuscript: Abu'l Fatḥ Qābil Khan ; Ādāb-i ʿĀlamagīrī, letters written on behalf of Prince Aurangzeb; ( BL MS. Or. 177) Full text ( memento of the original dated June 4, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. ; quoted in: Ancient Indian Weights (1874), p. 30f, describes different lengths for different measurements (materials). @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / persian.packhum.org
  13. ↑ cf. Pabna Initiative and Permanent Settlement
  14. ^ Lewis B. Rice: Mysore: a Gazetteer Prepared for Government . Westminster 1897, Vol I, Appendix 1: Weights and Measures
  15. ↑ further local dimensions cf. Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency; Bombay 1885; Vol. XVIII, part 2, pp. 138-40
  16. ↑ Based on the laws enacted in the motherland: 1758, 1824, 1855, 1878
  17. ↑ The Bengal Regulation No. XXXV of 1793 mentions 27 different ones. Princely states kept the coin rack (mostly until around 1895). The Hyderabad rupee was valid until after independence.
  18. ↑ replaced the St. Thomas weight
  19. ↑ Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1888)