Land trade

The agricultural trade focuses on the purchase and sale of agricultural and agricultural products and raw materials , such as grain and oilseeds, as well as operating supplies necessary for agriculture . These include, for example, seeds , pesticides , fertilizers and animal feed . Land trade is part of agribusiness . Together they form a value chain .

The following article looks primarily at trade at the national level. In the case of official statistics , for example harvest information, the allocation is made according to agricultural economic sectors, for example agriculture and forestry or according to commercial sectors. With regard to cross-border trade in agricultural and agricultural goods in EU internal or intra -EU trade and at the international level ( foreign trade ), see agricultural trade .

The term agricultural goods trade is also used for companies in the field of private or cooperative land trade and the term goods cooperatives for the cooperative-oriented area. In the company name of German trading companies, both land trade and agricultural trade can be found, in the linguistic translation (English, French, etc.) the term agricultural trade is common.

ATR-Landhandel's silo in Ratzeburg

Grain storage of a rural trading company

function

Agricultural trade value chain

Link in the agricultural value chain

The agricultural trade is a link within the agricultural value chain : on the one hand between manufacturers of agricultural equipment and on the other hand between agriculture and companies in the processing industry , for example mills and wholesalers . The agricultural trade business as a whole is structured in two stages by differentiating between wholesale and retail . Agricultural trading companies have i. d. Usually close to agriculture.

The first level primarily comprises the private collection trade or the primary level of the cooperatives. Companies that are assigned to the first stage in value creation are also in close contact with them as direct contacts for agriculture. Second level companies tend not to have direct contact with customers and operate as wholesalers or central purchasing. The former clear separation of these two levels is increasingly but not always given, since both cooperative and private wholesalers of the second level are now increasingly in direct business relationships with agriculture.

Compensates for temporal, spatial, qualitative and qualitative imbalances

Agricultural trading companies compensate imbalances that arise spatially, temporally, qualitatively and quantitatively between the production of agricultural products and their processing or consumption . Land trade fulfills a double function . This dual function developed particularly in the 19th century . He acts as a buyer of his products for the farmer and makes them available to the receiving industry in a timely manner and at the appropriate location. On the other hand, the farmer is a consumer of inputs. Here the agricultural trade ensures that the appropriate products are available in terms of time, space and quality, adapted to the needs of the farm.

The agricultural trade also plays an important role in terms of quality assurance in food and feed production. He has developed and established self-monitoring systems for quality assurance such as the European grain monitoring introduced in 1999 or the guidelines for quality assurance of production processes ( GMP ).

Risk coverage

In addition to its position as a sales agent and supplier of operating resources, the agricultural trade has financing functions. As a result, the land trade bears a greater financial risk compared to other trade sectors. Agricultural trading companies offer to enter into forward contracts. In this way, the farmer secures a purchase guarantee and the payout price for his grain, for example, before sowing, so the agricultural trade also acts in the form of a risk protection.

The legal framework for the trade relations between the agricultural trade and the farmer form i. d. R. the standard conditions in the German grain trade.

Monitoring

Monitoring in the agricultural trade is a form of quality assurance for the traded products. They formulate standards for hygiene and safety through specific requirements for transport, reception, storage and traceability. The basis is on the one hand legal regulations such as the “EU regulation on quality regulations for agricultural products and food” as well as control systems introduced by companies themselves. For example, like the companies grouped together in the Association of German Mills (VDM). These have agreed on the "Guideline for product and process safety for mills". The VDM has also introduced the European Grain Monitoring (EGM) as a control system to find undesirable substances in the grain. Both mills and agricultural trading companies participate in this.

There are also the guidelines for quality assurance of production processes ( GMP ) or the European Code of Good Commercial Practice (GTP), which Coceral, the European umbrella organization for the trade in grain, animal feed and other agricultural products, has developed. The GTP security concept applies to the entire European trade and logistics chain in the food and feed industry.

consultation

Agricultural trading companies advise on the use of operating resources, such as pesticides, according to the principles of good professional practice. The agricultural trade also takes on an advisory function with regard to the use and application of fertilizers and feed. According to a survey by the Kleffmann Group , only around 11% of farmers in Germany buy their feed directly from the manufacturer.

Structures

In Germany there are both owner-managed and cooperative agricultural trading companies. In 2010 there were 504 (1952: 10,788) cooperative and 675 (1950: 6,640) private agricultural trading companies. The wholesale companies in the agricultural sector include, for example, BayWa AG and Agravis Raiffeisen AG. There are five main cooperatives in Germany (as of 2016).

Associations represent the interests of companies. The private agricultural trade is organized in the Federal Association of the Agricultural Industry (BVA), furthermore partly in the Association of Grain Traders of the Hamburg Stock Exchange (VdG) and in southern Germany in the Association of the Agricultural Industry (VdAW) and in eastern Germany in the agricultural service associations. These are the successor organizations of the agrochemical centers during the GDR . The German Raiffeisen Association (DRV) represents cooperatively organized agricultural trading companies .

The number of agricultural trading companies in the EU countries varies considerably. In the field of crop protection, for example, in Denmark there are purchasing groups made up of cooperatives and smaller agricultural trading companies. In Italy there are over 5000 companies without national sales structures. “France, Greece, Spain and Portugal also have very fragmented distribution systems. Austria, Finland, Norway and Sweden have very concentrated systems, while Belgium, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands and Great Britain are roughly in the middle. "

working area

The agricultural trade, for example, uses silo trucks to deliver compound feed to farmers

Lime ammonium nitrate is a commonly traded mineral fertilizer .

Different branches in the field of capture and marketing are for example

Cereals and oilseeds

In the field of resources for agriculture

Feed , this also includes feed-restorer ( minerals , salts ), fertilizer , pesticides and seed

Other product areas are for example

Fuels such as heating oil, coal briquettes and wood pellets, building materials , products for business use such as stable cleaning agents and disinfectants, foils, silage aids and segments in gardening and pet supplies.

Work processes

As described above, there is a historically evolved division of labor between agriculture as an upstream level, agricultural trade as an intermediate level and processing industry as a downstream level, for the purpose of quality assurance and for an effective balance in the redistribution of goods. As a result, the customers, for example the mills or compound feed plants, receive the offer of qualitatively uniform quantities. The agricultural trade has appropriate storage and transport facilities as well as machines and bundles the farmers' products in the sense of a wholesale trade .

Storage of agricultural products

By storing grain and oilseeds, agricultural trading companies provide the farmers with animal husbandry with appropriately processed grain all year round. The companies therefore often have silo systems and warehouses, devices for breaking, squeezing or grinding the grain, or even mixing systems to prepare mineral feed or protein supplements.

When storing grain, it is important that there are no defects in terms of leaks and cleanliness. Functioning conveyor technology is also required . The camp must be free of mice, rats or other pests so that there is no feces contamination. Both temperature and moisture content play a major role in storage. Drying systems, cooling devices and thermometers are used for this.

quality control

In order to ensure the safety of the quality of the traded agricultural products such as grain and oilseeds, which the agricultural trading companies store in silos or corresponding halls, employees measure the content of moisture and protein or falling number and carry out tests for the rapid determination of mycotoxins (fungus) by. In addition, in grain and oilseeds, for example, there is a reduction in weed seeds, straw or grains that are polluted and fungal. Grain maize, for example, requires freshly harvested goods to be dried by around 15–20 percentage points.

Transport, distribution and logistics

In order to guarantee the trade in agricultural products and resources, agricultural trade companies have tasks in the areas of transport , logistics and distribution. For this purpose, agricultural trading companies have their own vehicle fleets with appropriate transport and loading systems or work together with specialized companies. They supply both farmers and the processing food and feed manufacturers .

In the fertilizer sector, for example, the agricultural trade provides appropriate batches of loose goods as required , which the farmer can collect directly with his fertilizer spreader . In the case of products such as liquid fertilizers, the manufacturers' minimum delivery quantities of 25 tons are often significantly greater than the needs of an individual farmer. In Germany, for example, potash is often transported by rail. The agricultural trade ensures that the freight train is unloaded quickly, even outside of the fertilization season. In the case of fertilizers, the agricultural trade u. a. also a rental of spreaders.

Field trials

In the field of plant protection, some agricultural trading companies maintain test fields in order to gain knowledge of useful plant protection strategies and to demonstrate them in practice. In addition to marketing plant protection products in their original packaging, the trade also sells individual products from package solutions and advises the farmer on how to use them, in line with good professional practice .

Seed trade

In Germany, seeds of maize , grain and rapeseed are made available as operating resources for farmers, including by agricultural trading companies. Agricultural trading companies either produce the seeds themselves in cooperation with farmers and then act as so-called propagation organization companies (VO companies) or purchase the pre-packaged seeds from other VO companies. VO companies are a link between breeding and agricultural practice.

The Bundessortenamt identifies around 800 different varieties for each culture. These differ in terms of maturity, resistance and other characteristics. In the field of seed propagation in Germany, for example, there are several hundred seed propagators in the field of grain. Therefore, most farmers do not need to operate their own replica and are therefore more independent in their selection.

Garden center

From the supply of farms in the 1960s, an additional segment developed into an end-user business with garden items and pet food. These garden centers are also known as Green Department Stores.

Trading volume

The trading volume of both owner-operated and cooperative-run agricultural trading companies in Germany is based on the one hand on the harvest volumes and, on the other hand, is reflected in the purchase business on the need for products such as plant nutrition or plant protection products.

Harvest quantities of selected crops in Germany compared over time

Culture	2014	2015	2016
Total grain for grain production	52 010.4	48 866.8	45 259.6
Winter rape	6 241.7	5,007.6	4,611.7

Comparison of the harvest volume of grain for grain production (including seed production) of the countries with the largest harvest volumes within the EU-28 (harvest volume 1000t)

country	2014	2015	2016
EU (28 countries)	332,593.47	316,768.03	-
Germany	52,048.20	48,917.70	-
France	72,714.92	72,633.16	54,391.39
Italy	19,412.82	17,553.10	18,073.65
Poland	31,945.40	28,002.70	30,110.00e
Romania	22,070.74	19,286.24	19,930.89
United Kingdom	24,525.00p	24,735.00	21,965.00e

(p = estimated / e = provisional)

More than 20% of the entire EU wheat harvest is exported every year, while large quantities of oilseeds, animal feed and rice are imported. In terms of volume and acreage, wheat is by far the most popular cereal in the EU, accounting for around half of all cereals. The other 50% is accounted for by a third of maize and a third of barley, plus grains grown in smaller quantities such as triticale, rye, oats and spelled. "Almost two thirds of the EU grain is used in animal feed processing, and around for human consumption a third is used and just under 3% is used for biofuels.

Around 2/3 of the oilseeds consumed annually in the EU are produced in the EU, but around half of the oilseed meal used annually as animal feed is imported.

Compound feed production in Germany was 23.4 million tons in 2015. The major part of it is marketed and transported by the agricultural trade. The EU imports around 22 million tonnes of soybean meal annually. Some of these are processed by compound feed plants and some are delivered directly to farmers by agricultural traders.

Domestic sales of crop protection agents in 2015 were 34,752 t. Pursuant to Section 64 of the Plant Protection Act, manufacturers and distributors of plant protection products are obliged to report to the Federal Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety (BVL) on an annual basis the quantities of plant protection products and the active substances they contain that have been supplied or exported in Germany.

In the fertilizer sector , annual sales in 2015 totaled almost 3.3 billion euros. The sale of mineral fertilizers fluctuates between two and almost four billion euros, depending on the price level of the agricultural end products (grain, fruit). “Within Germany, sales of mineral fertilizers increased slightly in the 2014/15 season (July - June) compared to the previous year. Nitrogen sales increased by 8.8 percent to 1.82 million tons of nitrogen (N). However, the actual nitrogen consumption in agriculture is estimated to be significantly lower. In June 2015, above-average quantities of nitrogen fertilizers were sold, but most of them were used in the current fertilization year 2015/16. Phosphate sales rose by 17,000 tons to 301,000 tons of P2O5, which corresponds to an increase of 6.1 percent. Sales of potash remained stable with a slight increase of 0.6 percent and totaled 460,000 tons of K2O. Sales of lime fertilizers fell by 4 percent and amounted to 2.76 million tons of CaO. "

Structural change

Concentration processes

The corporate development of both the private and the cooperatively run agricultural trading companies is characterized by concentration processes. As companies grow in size, the total number of companies will decrease as small and medium-sized companies merge. For example, the number of cooperatively organized agricultural trading companies in the North / West region fell from 44 companies in 2011 to 37 in 2016 as a result of mergers.

The structural change within the land trade began in the post-war period. In Bavaria and Schleswig-Holstein, for example, the number of private and cooperative land trading companies fell in 1980 to half and by a third respectively compared to the 1950s. In contrast, the average sales of the trading companies that still exist on the market and those in the entire industry increased. In addition, the traditional link between land trade and agriculture is diminishing. For example, the decision to choose a trading partner is now often made solely on the basis of price. This increases the pressure on operating costs for the entire agricultural trade. The expansion of regional purchasing and sales cooperations between farmers also leads to a further concentration on the demand side, which increases competition and the tendency towards oligopolization in the agricultural trade sector. The organizational form of the agricultural trading company influences the management. Due to the increasing competitive pressure and the growth in size of companies, the differences between private and cooperative agricultural trading companies are increasingly being lost.

The concentration processes in agriculture and the increasing progress in the information technology (IT) sector lead to constant changes within the value chain. Larger agricultural companies are increasingly making direct contact with the manufacturing industry. As a result, the agricultural trade is changing its range of services.

As stated above, the development is characterized by increasing competition among agricultural trading companies. This includes a stronger strategic alignment of retail companies between diversification and concentration, e-commerce and professional branding. This promotes, for example, the expansion of trade marketing and public relations at both the owner-operated and the cooperative-run trading companies .

digitalization

The new information technologies affect land trade on many levels. For example, the advancing digitization in agriculture is also influencing land trade. For example with regard to the level of information and transaction costs or with regard to greater market transparency. For the farmer, the development of agricultural technology simplifies the production processes. This concerns, for example, the calculation for the purchase of seeds or fertilizers. The networking of machines in crop production with the help of service platforms offers new possibilities for interaction between trade and agriculture. Among other things, this presents agricultural retailers with the task of further developing their function between manufacturer and customer.

history

The trade in agricultural goods developed with the transition of humans as nomadic hunters and gatherers to sedentarism . This is linked to the management of agricultural land and animal husbandry for the purpose of producing, processing and storing food. Trade is closely linked to the development of the division of labor .

Primeval and early times

In early human history , whatever people hunted, fished, and gathered belonged to the group and served for self-sufficiency . With human settlements around 17,000 years ago, the first forms of agrarian societies with arable farming and cattle breeding developed over time . This led to the production of surpluses, for example in the case of grain or meat. The surplus of staple food made it possible to supply people who, in return, specialized in the manufacture of tools, clothing or jewelry. For example, they exchanged grain for meat, tools for skins, and copper for earthenware. The bartering promoted the division of labor . Agricultural goods or goods such as grain and cattle became very important. They also served as a means of exchange and had a monetary function in the sense of natural money . Agricultural goods were mostly consumed within their production area.

Middle Ages until today

Due to the Nuremberg grain legislation, free grain trade was prohibited from 1352 until the 18th century.

Pre-war period

While the grain trade in pre-industrial Germany was still mostly operated in the form of commission business, over time it increasingly developed into proprietary business. With the growing supraregional importance of the grain trade, the local " Schrannen " lost their importance and the central market place gained increasing popularity. This development resulted in the first product exchanges or commodity exchanges . In addition to the sales business, the purchase business, in particular with feed and fertilizers, has now also gained in importance.

Business relationships often led to disputes, especially if the delivery did not meet the agreed quality. This cemented the role of land trade as an intermediate stage. For example, due to recurring conflicts in direct business with farmers, the mills then bought through agricultural trading companies. The agricultural trade thus increasingly played the role of compensating for risks for the downstream stages of the value chain. This also resulted in close relationships between agricultural traders and farmers. Agricultural companies, for example, also gave overdrafts and handled all banking and monetary transactions for the farmer.

In 1847 Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen founded the first agricultural cooperative . In addition to the owner-managed agricultural trade in the form of individually operating entrepreneurs, cooperatives were formed after the elimination of the flood obligation and the liberation of the farmers. Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen founded the first rural commodity cooperatives as “charities” for farmers. This supports, among other things, the purchase of seeds, the granting of loans or the commercial advice of farmers who were often economically ignorant at the time. Originally there was only money for goods. The trading companies credited the farmers with the equivalent value of the goods with interest. Banks such as the Raiffeisen banks developed from some agricultural trading companies.

The hyperinflation in the 1920s, as well as the political and economic situation, created instability and, as a result, strong price fluctuations on the grain markets. Up until 1934 there was therefore a slump, particularly among the owner-managed agricultural trading companies. The number of members of the Association of Grain Traders on the Hamburg Stock Exchange showed a decrease from 448 to 277 between 1928 and 1934.

The First World War, with the population's supply shortages in agricultural products, led in the twenties to a legally established central administration of food and feed. During the time of National Socialism , a universal organization, the Reichsnährstand , was created. In it the farmers, the agricultural cooperatives and the agricultural trade were brought together. This brought free trade to a standstill. The Reichsnährstand was dissolved again after the Second World War.

The means of production needs of farmers covered in the GDR during the time of the divided Germany, the agrochemical centers from.

post war period

While on the one hand the structural change within the land trade began in the post-war period and in Bavaria and Schleswig-Holstein, for example, the number of private and cooperative land trade companies in 1980 was reduced to half and a third respectively compared to the 1950s, on the other hand it rose the average sales of the trading companies still existing on the market and those in the entire industry.

The stagnation in industry growth in the 1980s is accompanied by increasing competition. In addition, the traditional link between land trade and agriculture is diminishing. One characteristic is, for example, that the decision on a trading partner is now often made solely on the basis of price. This increases the pressure on operating costs for the entire agricultural trade. The expansion of regional purchasing and sales cooperations between farmers also leads to a further concentration on the demand side, which increases competition and the tendency towards oligopolization in the agricultural trade sector.

literature

Bundeslehranstalt Burg Warberg, GenoAkademie (Hrsg.): Technical questions for the grain and feed merchant . 3rd revised edition. Agrimedia, Clenze 2011.
Gerhard Humpisch (Hrsg.): Store grain and oilseeds - basics, procedures, application . 3rd revised edition. Agrimedia, Clenze 2014.
Knittel, Albert, Ebertseder: Practical manual fertilizer and fertilization . 2nd revised edition. Agrimedia, Clenze 2012.

Web links

Commons : Grain Silos from Farmers and Farmers - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

↑ Gollisch, S. / Theuvsen, L., 2015: Risk Management in Agricultural Trade: Characteristics, Challenges, Implications, Reports on Agriculture, BD. 39, Edition 1., Ed. Published by the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture, p. 1 http://buel.bmel.de/index.php/buel/article/view/72/Gollisch-93-1-html

↑ Gabler Wirtschaftslexikon: Landhandel http://wirtschaftslexikon.gabler.de/Definition/landhandel.html

↑ Destatis - Federal Statistical Office https://www.destatis.de/DE/ZahlenFakten/Wirtschaftsbereich/Wirtschaftsbereich.html

↑ ibid .: Gollisch, S. / Theuvsen, L., 2015: Risk Management in Land Trade, p. 5

↑ Annual report of the Deutscher Raiffeisenverband eV Review 2015 - Outlook 2016 http://www.raiffeisen.de/wp-content/uploads/downloads/2016/06/DRV_GB_2015_Internet-1.pdf

↑ Bundesverband der Agrargewerblichen Wirtschaft, Flyer 2015, description of the trading areas in the agricultural trade http://www.bv-agrar.de/sites/default/files/pdf/BVA%20Flyer%202015.pdf

↑ Examples of the product areas of agricultural trading companies: https://www.kornmarkt-neuhof.de/produkte/ , http://www.sausedlitzer-agrarprodukte.de/produkte.php , archived copy ( Memento of the original from April 15, 2017 in Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , http://www.folkerts-landhandel.de/ @1@ 2
↑ Plug, O. / Plug, OA / Elles, A. / Weschke, H.-D. / Kliebisch, C., 2010: Marketing for food and agricultural products., 4th edition., Frankfurt am Main: DLG-Verlag., P. 328
↑ Challenges of global change for agricultural development and world food, report on the 52nd annual conference of the Society for Economic and Social Sciences in Agriculture (GEWISOLA) from September 26th to 28th, 2012, In: Reports on Agriculture, Volume 91, Issue 1 , May 2013., Ed .: Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture, ISSN 2196-5099, p. 2
^ Riessen, C., 2008: Structural change processes in the trade chain for grain. Opportunities and risks for agricultural grain production. Saarbrücken: VDM., P. 46
↑ ibid .: Gollisch, S. / Theuvsen, L., 2015: Risk Management in Landhandel, p. 6 http://buel.bmel.de/index.php/buel/article/view/72/Gollisch-93-1 -html
↑ Landwirt.com , preliminary contract for grain
↑ Regulation (EU) No. 1151/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council of November 21, 2012 on quality regulations for agricultural products and food
↑ Link to the Association of German Mills (VDM) with explanations on monitoring http://www.muehlen.org/ernaehrung/qualitaet-und-sicherheit/
↑ Good Trading Practice (GTP) PHPSESSID = 080f3f11ca03662ec237d25824da3826 ( Memento of the original from April 15, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2
↑ Good professional practice in plant protection. Implementation principles. Brochure from the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture (BMEL) http://www.bmel.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/Broschueren/GutePraxisPflanzenschutz.pdf?__blob=publicationFile
↑ topagrar.com Kleffmann survey of animal feed purchasing
↑ ibid .: Gollisch, S. / Theuvsen, L., 2015: Risk Management in Land Trade, p. 3
↑ DGRV, overview of main cooperatives https://www.dgrv.de/de/lösungen/regionalzentralen/hauptgenossenschaften.html
↑ Bundesverband der Agrargewerblichen Wirtschaft, Flyer 2015 http://www.bv-agrar.de/sites/default/files/pdf/BVA%20Flyer%202015.pdf
↑ 2004/310 / EG: Commission decision of July 26, 2000 declaring a merger compatible with the common market and the EEA Agreement , p. 24.
↑ Decision of the Commission on the AstraZeneca / Novartis merger , Section 91.
↑ ibid .: Gollisch, S. / Theuvsen, L., 2015: Risk Management in Land Trade, p. 6
↑ Gabler Wirtschaftslexikon, purchase trade
↑ Max Rubner Institute, Federal Research Institute for Nutrition and Food, Institute for Safety and Quality in Grain https://www.mri.bund.de/de/institute/sicherheit-und-qualitaet-bei-getreide/
↑ The functions of the VO companies http://www.bvo-saaten.de/allgemeines
↑ Overview of the seed law https://www.bmel.de/DE/Landwirtschaft/Pflanzenbau/Saatgut/_Texte/Saatgutrecht.html
↑ See: http: //www.grüneswarenhaus.de/
↑ Federal Statistical Office (Destatis) publishes specialist statistics on fertilizer supply every quarter, cf. at: https://www.destatis.de/DE/Publikationen/Themati/IndustrieVerarbeitendesGewerbe/Fachstatistik/DuengemittelversorgungVj.html
↑ See figures for the Industrieverband Agrar eV (IVA): http://www.iva.de/verband/ Pflanzenernaehrung/markt

↑ Federal Statistical Office - destatis https://www.destatis.de/DE/ZahlenFakten/Wirtschaftsbereich/LandForstwirtschaftFischerei/FeldfruechteGruenland/Tabellen/FeldfruechteZeitreihe.html

↑ Data source: Eurostat: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language=de&pcode=tag00027&plugin=1

↑ Information from the European Commission on the market sectors, as of March 2017 https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/cereals_de

↑ ibid .: Information from the European Commission on the market sectors, as of March 2017

↑ DVT compound feed production Germany 2015

^ Farmers' Association for Feed

↑ The sale of plant protection products in the Federal Republic of Germany, results of the reports in accordance with Section 64 of the Plant Protection Act for 2015, domestic sales of active ingredients (t); Development since 2006, p. 11 http://www.bvl.bund.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/04_Pflanzenschutzmittel/meld_par_64_2015.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=2

↑ ibid .: IVA, Development of fertilizer sales in Germany 2015 http://www.iva.de/verband/ Pflanzenernaehrung/ markt

↑ http://www.agrarzeitung.de/nachrichten/wirtschaft/protected/im-landhandel-tut-sich-was-63052.html

↑ ibid .: Gollisch, S. / Theuvsen, L., 2015: p. 33 and p. 12–13

↑ Hollstein, A., 2000: Value chains of the German grain industry. An analysis of the flow of quantities and values. Diss. Gießen., P. 54

↑ Schulze, B., 2012: Challenges of the agricultural trade under changed market conditions: Theoretical considerations and empirical evidence. Lecture on the occasion of the 52nd Annual Meeting of GEWISOLA "Challenges of Global Change for Agricultural Development and World Food", University of Hohenheim, September 26-28, 2012, p. 13, http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/133053/2/ Schulze_GEWISOLA_2012.pdf

↑ ibid .: Gollisch, S. / Theuvsen, L., 2015: Risk Management in Land Trade, p. 5

↑ Understanding Agriculture - Chances of Digitization http://www.bmel.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/Broschueren/Landwirtschaft-verhaben-Chancen-Digitalisierung.pdf?__blob=publicationFile

↑ ibid .: Green Paper: p. 14

↑ ibid .: Abel, W .: pp. 116–117

↑ ibid .: Gollisch, S. / Theuvsen, L .: p. 2

↑ ibid .: Abel, W .: p. 1

↑ Landhandel.de

^ Hochmuth, A., 1951: The Bavarian land trade. Its importance and position compared to the agricultural cooperatives. Diss. Nuremberg., P. 11

↑ Gollisch, S. / Theuvsen, L., 2015, p. 2

↑ ibid .: Gollisch, S. / Theuvsen, L., 2015: p. 33 and p. 12–13.