Escape pod

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B-58 bomber escape pod

A rescue capsule , sometimes escape capsule , is a life-saving equipment and may be part of the emergency equipment of a vehicle or a habitat be. It locks its occupants in during an evacuation and protects them from the surrounding conditions. This can be a fundamentally hostile environment such as underwater or in space. However, it can also have arisen from side effects of events that make evacuation necessary, for example smoke, flying debris or fire after accidents or acts of war.

Differentiation from other life-saving appliances

The 1-person liferaft for aircraft encapsulates its occupant

In their function , life capsules have common overlaps with other life saving equipment such as survival suits , lifeboats or life rafts or liferafts .

The main task of escape pods is to shield the occupants from the environment, at least in the evacuation phase, while they are being transported out of the immediate danger zone. In contrast to a shelter , a rescue capsule can therefore be moved , but does not necessarily have its own drive. The carrier's ejection and ejection devices or external aids can be used to release the escape pods or to move them out of the danger zone. Alternatively, the capsule has its own drive for evacuation.

The term of the escape capsule is established in environments in which people cannot act or even survive without technical aids, such as that of aeronautics or submarine technology. In the maritime “overwater” environment, however, life-saving appliances are used that look back on a long history of development and a long tradition of terminology in the form of lifeboats, life rafts and life rafts. The concept of the escape capsule is also used there, but the term is only used for a few very specially designed devices and devices, or for the abstract functional principle. For example, lifeboats and lifeboats do not isolate their occupants from their surroundings by definition, but many modern life-saving appliances also meet this criterion thanks to their closed construction.

Especially free-fall lifeboats correspond very broad concept of the rescue capsule and combine it with the lifeboat. After the seats are occupied and everyone is buckled up, a release mechanism is activated. Then the completely closed boat slips off a ramp, falls into the water and, due to its impulse, drifts out of the immediate vicinity of the wearer. Then it can control an evacuation point with its drive. Simple, partly open lifeboats, on the other hand, have to be deployed by the crew and auxiliary devices ( davits ) and actively maneuvered out of the danger zone.

Survival suits also include their wearer. However, they are generally assigned to the area of protective clothing or personal protective equipment . The same applies to pressure and space suits in aeronautics.

Protective function

Depending on the environment, escape capsules are designed to shield various external influences entirely or as much as possible:

  • Vacuum / negative pressure, e.g. B. in the aerospace industry
  • Overpressure, e.g. B. Water pressure in submarines
  • Fire and smoke, e.g. B. in the event of accidents or acts of war
  • Mechanical protection from rubble
  • Wind pressure (e.g. aviation)
  • Heat / cold

aviation

Rescue capsules in aviation exist or existed as a further development of the ejection seat . They are found practically exclusively in the military sector. Depending on the system, the crew members are individually locked in their seats in a capsule immediately before the evacuation and ejected from the aircraft using an ejector seat procedure, or the cockpit including the crew is separated from the aircraft and brought to a safe distance for opening the parachutes using rocket propellants .

There have also been repeated suggestions to design the entire cabin as an escape capsule on large passenger aircraft and to land it with parachutes in an emergency. This concept was not able to prevail because, in addition to the additional effort, only a very small part of the most likely emergency scenarios can be covered. However, total rescue systems have been brought to commercial maturity that can parachute smaller aircraft to the ground after an airborne accident.

Parachutes for rescue pods in military systems are expressly listed in the arms export report and are subject to export controls in Germany .

Detachable cockpits

F-111 cockpit escape pod
Blastable cockpits were also tested on HU-25 helicopters
Model of an OKB 2 346
  • DFS 54 : On August 6, 1939, two glider pilots got into a very high altitude over the Wasserkuppe in Germany and caught a hail shower there. One plane crashed to death, the other survived injured. Felix Kracht and his colleagues at the German Research Institute for Glider Flight (DFS) then developed a detachable pressure cabin cockpit for the DFS 54 , from which the pilot should be ejected at a safe height using a compressed air slide. The DFS 54 was only 80% completed due to the war, but this design saved the life of the pilot of the OKB-2 346.
  • Heinkel He 176 : In this German rocket aircraft from 1939, the nose section could be ejected as an escape capsule. However, the pilot then had to free himself to parachute jump.
  • DFS 228 : German high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft with rocket propulsion from 1944. It had a detachable pressure cabin cockpit of the DFS 54 with a parachute, from which the pilot should be ejected at a lower altitude with his personal parachute.
  • DFS 346 / OKB-2 346 : Rocket aircraft project started in Germany and continued in the Soviet Union. Here, too, the detachable pressure cabin cockpit with the pilot lying in it was a further development of the DFS-54 cockpit. The escape capsule was successfully used in the Soviet Union and in 1951 saved the (German) pilot Wolfgang Ziese.
  • Miles M.52 : British supersonic missile aircraft project (1942-45) with a detachable cockpit without a parachute, from which the pilot should exit with his personal parachute.
  • Bell X-2 : supersonic missile aircraft. The escape capsule only had a small braking parachute . The pilot died during its use in 1956. He hit the ground with the capsule because he was unable to get out of the capsule and open his parachute after it was detached. Previously, on this flight, he was the first person - albeit not recognized as an official record - to achieve Mach 3 .
  • Suchoi Su-17 (1949) : This Soviet jet fighter from 1949, which had never flown, had an ejector seat and a parachute-equipped cockpit. The prototype was destroyed in attempted fire.
  • Heinkel He 031 : A German interceptor design from the late 1950s.
  • In the 1960s, escape capsules in the form of blastable cockpits were also tested for helicopters . The US Navy had studied the accidents from 1952 to '62 and realized that a majority of the pilots could be saved with a rescue system that works in flight. The Naval Weapons Laboratory (today Naval Surface Warfare Center Dahlgren Division ) in Virginia / USA was then commissioned to carry out a feasibility study. The helicopter model type Piasecki UH-25B a rescue capsule system was developed. It consisted of a complex system of pyrotechnic fuses and detonating cords, as well as rocket sets and parachutes, which were subsequently scaffolded . First, the rotor blades were blown off and the cockpit and cable connections were separated using detonating cords. The rear part of the fuselage was pulled away with rocket sets. Shortly afterwards, the four parachutes were shot out of their containers and the round caps were opened using pyrotechnic devices (“ultrafast opening”). The whole thing was tested in partial tests, from March 31, 1966 and then also with remote-controlled flying helicopters in the air under various conditions. The tests were successful and the procedure was found to be principally feasible at altitudes above 30 m (100 ft). The results were documented in a film that is now also publicly available. Nothing is known about further implementation of these results. Only a few Russian combat helicopters even have a rescue system in the form of detachable rotor blades and conventional ejection seats.
  • General Dynamics F-111 : The US fighter aircraft (1964-2010), also used by the Australian and British Air Force, was able to blow up the entire cockpit section as an escape pod, and then land on parachutes. One of the really used escape pods is preserved in the Dumfries and Galloway Aviation Museum / Scotland. During a low flight on November 5, 1975, the cockpit window was destroyed by a bird. The pilot was injured. Both crew members survived the emergency exit that followed. The plane crashed into the sea. In addition, other accidents of this type with rescue capsule use are documented.
  • The first three Rockwell B-1A bombers had an escape pod similar to the F-111, but with four seats. When the second machine crashed on August 29, 1984 during a test flight, a pilot lost his life. Its seat had been torn from its mounts on impact. The other two crew members in the capsule survived seriously injured. The capsule was blown off, but the parachute failed. The additional inflatable air cushions could not develop their effect due to the angle of impact. The B-1B was equipped with conventional ejection seats.

  • German rescue capsule system of the DFS 346 (1940s)

  • used escape pod of an F-111 in the museum

  • B-1A in the museum with the highlighted contour of the escape capsule

  • B-1A in the side view you can see the escape capsule

Ejector seat escape pods

Testing a Valkyrie capsule

The development took place in the course of the introduction of nuclear-armed bombers in the Cold War , which could permanently reach several times the speed of sound . Two US aircraft types have been handed down with this system. In the end, however, conventional ejection seats prevailed, which also allow exit at supersonic speed. The protective function during the exit is fulfilled by a pressure suit and helmet.

The nuclear-carrying supersonic bomber Convair B-58 Hustler of the US Air Force was put into service in 1960 and had rescue capsule ejection seats for the three series-seated crew members. 116 machines were built. 25 of them were lost in accidents, with some of the escape pods also being used.

The North American XB-70 Valkyrie was a supersonic bomber project of the US Air Force with its first flight in 1964 that produced two prototypes. After the collision of a prototype with another aircraft during a photo formation flight , the pilot Alvin White was able to shoot himself out with the escape capsule. However, he suffered injuries both when it was locked into the escape pod and when it hit the ground. Copilot Joe Cotton died on the plane. It could not be clarified whether the emergency exit had not been triggered or whether there was a malfunction.

The two US interceptor projects XF-103 and XF-108 from the 1950s shared some common components. This also included escape pods for the pilots that could be ejected downwards.

  • B-58 capsule open

  • B-58 capsule closed

  • Ejection of a B-58 escape pod

  • XF-103 with capsule under the fuselage

Space travel

Concept for the Crew Return Vehicle X-38 at the ISS (Computergrafik 2000)
An Apollo capsule is pulled away with the rescue rocket (test 1963)

In space travel, take-off accidents and accidents in space are scenarios in which escape pods offer themselves as an evacuation option. Therefore, the spaceship section with the cockpit, or the so-called space capsule , which also functions as a return module, is designed to be detachable for an aborted launch and is equipped with rescue missiles or escape engines.

So far, the spaceships coupled to space stations have also taken on the function of lifeboats. There must be sufficient space for all crew members at the stations at all times. The term Crew Return Vehicle (CRV) (initially also Assured Crew Return Vehicle - ACRV ) has established itself for these spacecraft, which are kept ready for an evacuation . It can be traced back to concepts and development work on escape pods for the predecessors of the International Space Station (ISS). Apart from that, there have been many ideas, concepts and concrete developments for space escape pods practically since the beginning of space travel. In addition to protecting space travelers from the hostile conditions in space, the ability to return to earth was often provided. However, only a little of it reached operational readiness.

Selection of some escape pod projects:

  • MOOSE (short for man out of space easiest ), a foldable return capsule from the 1960s, in which the spaceman in his space suit was to be lathered . The polyurethane foam also served as heat protection on re-entry, as an impact absorber and a life raft.
  • Satellite Life Raft , a concept for a fixed single person re-entry capsule with a heat shield and parachute
  • Satellite Life Boat , a concept for a fixed multi-person re-entry capsule with heat shield and parachute
  • The EGRESS concept of Martin Marietta based on the already proven rescue capsule of the Convair B-58 bomber, a type of capsule ejection seat. In addition, it was equipped with all ejectable attitude control engines, brake rockets and a heat shield for re-entry. The system should weigh 370 kg.
  • A rescue ball, the Personal Rescue Enclosure , was developed for the space shuttle in the 1970s . The space shuttles were unable to dock together. In an emergency, a crew should have been evacuated to a rescue shuttle through open space. The rescue ball , comparable to an inflatable beach ball with a diameter of 86 cm , was intended to enclose a space traveler with a closed-circuit breathing apparatus and then - assisted by space travelers in space suits - to transport them to the rescue shuttle. However, it was never taken on board for space flights. Instead, evacuation with spacesuits was planned in several passages, such as B. designed for STS-400 .
  • In the history of the development of the French / European space glider Hermes at times - at the end of the 1980s - an escape capsule in the form of a separable cockpit, as described in the aviation section, was provided.
  • ACRV ( assured crew return vehicle , German as: wake-insured occupation return vehicle ) was a general term for the development of escape pods and vehicles of NASA (1989) and ESA (1992) for the ISS or its precursor concepts. The studies were discontinued in 1994 by ESA in favor of the X-38 (see below). However, the results were used in the Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator (test flight 1998).
  • The Alpha Lifeboat space station was derived from the Soviet Zarya spacecraft (not to be confused with the ISS module of the same name ) from Energija approx. 1985–1989 for the then planned international Alpha space station . Both the Zarya spaceship, the successor to Soyuz, and the escape capsule were not realized.
  • The NASA X-38 space glider was brought to the prototype phase by 2002. It was designed as a pure evacuation spaceship. His task would have been to bring injured and thus restricted space travelers from the space station largely automatically and safely back to earth if necessary.
  • Escape capsules or baskets of an escape cable car were available for the spacemen and technicians of the space shuttle not in space, but at the launch tower . They took their occupants to a bunker and an armored vehicle stationed there.

  • Personal Rescue Enclosure

  • MOOSE - The spaceman should be lathered

  • Design of the Freedom space station with ACRV

  • X-38 during a test

Shipping and marine engineering

Surface shipping and technology

alternative description
Rescue capsules on a work platform
Oil rig with life pods

While ships are usually equipped with lifeboats or inflatable life rafts, life pods are also used in offshore structures , such as drilling rigs or production platforms. They mostly hang on a platform on a winch , from where they are occupied and then lowered.

Even if the rescue capsules and the lifeboats used there are SOLAS- compliant, unsinkable , fire-resistant including breathing air supply and sprinkler system, and mechanically very robust, there are some conceptual differences. Once in the water, the rope is released and the capsule drives out of the danger area with its drive. With only one suspension point, lowering is much less complex and therefore less prone to errors than with lifeboats, which have to be lowered synchronously with a hook at the bow and at the stern. Picking up a rescue capsule is also much easier this way. The entire process is more comfortable and controllable than the "dropping" of a free-fall lifeboat. Intensive training is a prerequisite for their safe use. This is easier to implement with professional ship crews than with work platforms, which are often used by a large number of staff with less pronounced maritime backgrounds. However, a disadvantage compared to free-fall boats, which are driven away from the dropping point by their impulse, is that the capsules under the platform are still in the potential danger area and can only leave it with motor power.

The round shape of the life raft benefits the mechanical stability if the capsule hits an obstacle in the water or a ship's side. It also makes maneuvering easier. Significantly tighter curves can be driven and sometimes even turned on the spot. This is an advantage between the structures of the offshore structures and also when collecting people in the water.

Rescue capsules for offshore platforms are designed for around 20 to 80 people, depending on their size. For smaller ships, the Canadian company Ovatek has developed an unpowered life capsule that can be carried instead of a life raft. As of 2020, it is available as a four- and seven-person model, also complies with SOLAS specifications and, like the larger models, has already proven itself in emergencies. Compared to an inflatable life raft, it has the advantage that it requires significantly less maintenance, as it does not have to be deployed regularly and is therefore always available for practical training. In addition, their solid construction has some other features that are otherwise only found in closed lifeboats. This includes a high level of mechanical robustness and also a certain degree of fire resistance.

Free-fall lifeboats that can drop heights of over 50 m meet all the characteristics of a rescue capsule. They protect their occupants and are ejected from the wearer by their weight. Their construction took into account that the evacuation must take place very quickly and in a very adverse and dangerous environment. Some of them also have their own air supply. In addition, they have a drive and even autopilots , which are activated when released, are available. The main purpose of conventional lifeboats is evacuation. The protection of the occupants during this phase is an additional aspect. They are regarded as a separate genus of life-saving appliances. Liferafts - nowadays mostly inflatable - are formally not counted as life pods, although modern rafts also enclose their occupants to protect them from the greatest calamities of the sea. Rafts for one or more people are often part of the emergency equipment of aircraft.

History of the offshore escape pod

The first offshore escape pod dates back to Milton Brucker in 1965. It was manufactured by the Brucker Life Sphere Company and was designed for 28 people. It was made of fiberglass-reinforced plastic , resembled a flying saucer in shape and could withstand fire for up to an hour. The internal diesel engine not only made it possible to leave the danger zone, but was also touted as a source of heat for the occupants. The construction used at that time could only straighten itself up again from an angle of up to 125 °, so it was not yet a self-righter , a fact that was to become relevant in 1976.

In 1972 Whittaker Survival Systems bought Brucker's patent and made its first escape pod. During the certification process, the US Coast Guard coined the expression TEMPSC ( Totally Enclosed Motor Propelled Survival Craft - in German: Fully enclosed motor-driven survival craft ). In 1974 the proposal of the TEMPSC design was added to the SOLAS regulations.

It was not until 1978 that freefall lifeboats were approved in the form known today. With the SOLAS revision of 1983, TEMPSC-compliant closed lifeboats, closed lifeboats, or free-fall lifeboats, etc. a. Mandatory on certain cargo ships and offshore working platforms for newbuildings from 1986.

On April 15, 1976, the only known fatal escape capsule accident occurred in the Gulf of Mexico when the Ocean Express oil rig capsized in bad weather . For the time being, the team was able to successfully save itself in two escape pods, some more capsules had already been torn away and washed away. Both capsule crews later complained of breathing problems from the gases that were created by paint on the hot parts of the engines inside. The 14 occupants of one escape pod were picked up by the Nicole Martin in heavy seas . With the second escape capsule, the rescue operation developed much more dramatically. The capsule was not moored to the Gulf Viking . As a result, the escape pod turned upside down. Seven of the inmates were able to escape outside, the 13 remaining were killed in the half-flooded upside-down capsule. It was calculated that the air bubble had offered air for a maximum of 30 minutes. In the aftermath, the investigation report by the US Coast Guard led to a long list of misconduct and suggestions for improvement for the entire towing operation, the weather forecast and also for the escape pods, which at the time were obviously not designed to be self-righting or were not prepared for this case.

In 1985 the rescue capsule manufacturer Whittaker reported production figures of 85-240 capsules per year in a newspaper interview. 936 lives were saved in 33 incidents.

  • Life pods on an oil rig

  • Life capsule on a fishing boat

  • Free fall lifeboat on the drainage rail

  • Freefall lifeboat: stern with hatch

  • Closed lifeboat prototype from 1904

  • Life raft

Submarines and submarine technology

Project 971 escape pod

On May 23, 1939, the US submarine USS Squalus sank . Even if 26 of the 59 people on board died in the sinking, it was still possible to save the survivors with an escape capsule in the form of a diving bell . The escape pod was later issued.

The four class 209/1500 ( Shishumar class ) submarines developed and partially manufactured in Germany for India from 1981 onwards have an escape capsule in front of the tower for the entire crew of up to 40 people.

Some Soviet and Russian military submarines are also known, despite their high level of secrecy, to have one or more escape pods in order to pick up the crew and bring them to the surface in an emergency. It is also sometimes assumed that all Russian submarines are equipped with it. Are known:

  • Project 705 Lira (NATO code: Alfa class )
  • Project 885 Jasen (NATO code: Graney class or Severodvinsk class ); In 2014, the Russian Defense Ministry released photos and videos of a manned test of such a capsule.
  • Project 685 Plawnik (NATO Code Mike Class); there was only one prototype or one boat in this class, the K-278 Komsomolez . When it sank in 1998, the escape pod was used, but only a few crew members survived.
  • Project 941 Akula (NATO code: Typhoon class) one each to the left and right of the tower
  • Project 945 Barracuda and Project 945A Condor (NATO code: Sierra I and II); Project 945 has one, 945A two escape pods in the tower.
  • Project 949 with K-139_Belgorod (presumed)
  • Project 949 Granite (NATO Code: Oscar Class); two boats active from 1980 to 1998
  • Project 949A Antey (NATO code: Oscar II class); when the K-141 Kursk sank , the crew was unable to use the escape pod.
  • Project 955 Borei (NATO code: Borei class) A Russia Today documentation presents the inner workings and the functionality of the capsule.
  • Project 971 Shchuka-B (NATO code: Akula)

No integrated rescue capsules are known from the submarines of other nations, there diving rescuers are carried as rescue equipment, which should allow an emergency exit in not too deep water. In the meantime, diving rescuers with survival suits and integrated life rafts are used (English: Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment ). Basically, however, the navies prefer external rescue by means of diving bells , as with the USS Squalus , or special rescue submarines that dock on the damaged vessel.

  • Issued escape pod from the USS Squalus accident

  • McCann Rescue Chamber prototype

  • MK10 Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment (SEIE)

  • Rescue capsule on the B-39 (Project 641)

More uses and trivia

  • During the Second World War, the German armed forces placed around 100 life buoys in the English Channel . These firmly anchored and extensively equipped capsules were supposed to offer emergency flight crews protection until they were rescued. Both German and English crews benefited from it. Later in the war, the British Air Force installed a similar system of converted, also firmly anchored, non-propulsion boats.
  • The Dahlbusch bomb developed in Germany in 1955 is a rescue device for underground evacuations. The elongated capsule is used to rescue people after mining accidents through boreholes with a diameter of at least 40 cm.
  • Especially after the two major tsunami disasters in the Indian Ocean in 2004 and in Japan in 2011 , a whole series of projects began to develop rescue pods for the event of a tsunami . Often these were more or less spherical containers that were supposed to offer temporary protection in a tidal wave filled with debris for one or more people. In some cases, more extensively equipped prototypes were presented.
  • In South Korea, a concept was developed to circumvent the problem of missing emergency lanes on highways. It was proposed to have an escape pod run on the central guardrail.
  • In The Hague / Holland, offshore rescue pods have been converted into overnight accommodation.
  • Escape pods are also repeatedly the subject of science fiction productions. Large spaceships there often have entire batteries of escape pods. Fictional submarines such as the SeaQuest DSV are also equipped accordingly. A fictional Air Force One escape capsule from the shooting of the film Big Game - The Hunt Begins (2014) is on display in the Bavaria film studios .

Related facilities

literature

  • Arthur L. Greensite: ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF SPACE VEHICLE FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS; VOLUME XVI- ABORT . Ed .: NASA. 1969 (English, wikimedia.org [PDF] NASA consideration of launch abort and rescue systems for space travel).

Web links

Commons : Escape pod  - collection of pictures, videos and audio files

General overview

Space travel

seafaring

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Hellmut Penner: Parachute rescue of airplanes and occupants . In: Air sports . June / July, 2017, ISSN  2511-8250 , p. 24–28 ( luftsportmagazin.de [PDF]).
  2. ^ German Bundestag (Ed.): Report of the Federal Government on its export policy for conventional armaments in 2005 (Armaments export report 2005) . October 4, 2006, Annex 2a List for weapons, ammunition and armaments, Section 0010, p. 59 ( bundestag.de [PDF; accessed on January 31, 2020]).
  3. ↑ a b DFS 228.Retrieved on February 1, 2020 .
  4. ↑ ABOUT ERICH WARSITZ, Chapter HEINKEL HE 176. firstjetpilot.com, accessed on January 29, 2020 (English): “Because of the poor chance of getting free of it, the whole cockpit had to be made ejectable. The cockpit and bulkhead behind Warsitz were fixed to four locks and were not integral to the fuselage. By pulling a lever the cockpit would be then separated from the fuselage to fall below. After a fall of about 1000 meters the wind resistance would slow the cockpit. Then, by deploying the braking parachute, the vertical descent of the cockpit would restrain relatively quickly to a final speed of 300 kms / hr. Warsitz would then throw off the plexiglass cover, unbuckle his straps, jump out, fall to 800 to 1000 meters and deploy the personal parachute to reach the ground at a speed of about 4 to 5 meters / sec. This ejector cockpit was the forerunner of the modern ejector seat, obviously quite different technically, but serving the same purpose. "
  5. ↑ DFS 228. Luftarchiv.de, accessed on January 29, 2020 : “The aircraft, which was mainly constructed of wood, contained a pressurized metal cabin so that the pilot could fly the machine up to an altitude of 2500 m. In an emergency, he could blast off the entire bow section and - when it had floated to a safe height with the help of a parachute - get out of the cabin and pull out his personal reserve parachute. "
  6. ↑ a b dfs 228. Accessed February 1, 2020 .
  7. ↑ DFS346. Accessed February 1, 2020 .
  8. ↑ Miles M.52. http://aviadejavu.ru , accessed on January 29, 2020 (English, the photo shows a mock-up of the Miles M.52 cockpit / escape pod).
  9. ↑ Machat, Mike. Color Schemes of the Bell X-2. Airpower, Volume 35, no.1 January 2005.
  10. ^ Suchoj Su-17 (R). Accessed February 1, 2020 .
  11. ↑ US NAVY HELICOPTER ESCAPE CAPSULE BALLISTIC SYSTEM EJECTION DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM FILM 17104. US Navy, accessed January 31, 2020 .
  12. ↑ GENERAL DYNAMICS F-111E ESCAPE CAPSULE. Dumfries and Galloway Aviation Museum, accessed January 28, 2020 .
  13. ↑ 1968 USAF Serial Numbers. February 26, 2020, accessed on March 9, 2020 (English, list of serial numbers of various aircraft with notes on their fate, including F-111 accidents with capsule use).
  14. ↑ https://www.nytimes.com/1984/08/31/us/b-1-crashed-in-test-of-slow-flight-air-force-says.html
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  17. ↑ North American's XB-70 "The Great White Bird". Retrieved January 19, 2020 .
  18. ↑ Michael Peck: The XF-103 Super-Interceptor Had One Job: Kill Russian Bombers. November 17, 2019, accessed February 9, 2020 .
  19. ↑ Tony R. Landis: FLASHBACK: Triplesonic Interceptors: The F-103, F-108 & YF-12A. Air Force Materiel Command History Office, Jan. 16, 2020, accessed Feb. 9, 2020 .
  20. ↑ United States General Accounting Office (Ed.): SPACE STATION, Impact of the Expanded Russian Role on Funding and Research . June 21, 1994, p. 1 and 3 (English, gao.gov [PDF; accessed January 30, 2020]).
  21. ↑ https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Analysis_and_design_of_space_vehicle_flight_control_systems._Volume_16_-_Abort.pdf page ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF SPACE VEHICLE FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS VOLUME XVI- ABORT; Arthur L. Greensite; from page 145
  22. ↑ MOOSE in the Encyclopedia Astronautica , accessed on January 29, 2020 (English).
  23. ↑ https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Analysis_and_design_of_space_vehicle_flight_control_systems._Volume_16_-_Abort.pdf page ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF SPACE VEHICLE FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS VOLUME XVI- ABORT; Arthur L. Greensite; from page 149
  24. ↑ https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Analysis_and_design_of_space_vehicle_flight_control_systems._Volume_16_-_Abort.pdf page ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF SPACE VEHICLE FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS VOLUME XVI- ABORT; Arthur L. Greensite; from page 154
  25. ↑ EGRESS in the Encyclopedia Astronautica , accessed on January 29, 2020 (English).
  26. ↑ https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Analysis_and_design_of_space_vehicle_flight_control_systems._Volume_16_-_Abort.pdf page ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF SPACE VEHICLE FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS VOLUME XVI- ABORT; Arthur L. Greensite; from page 156
  27. ↑ a b NASA (Ed.): NASA Facts. An Educational Publication of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration: Space Shuttle. January 1, 1979, Improved Space Suit and Unique Rescue System Developed for Shuttle, p. 7 (English, nasa.gov [PDF; accessed on February 2, 2020]).
  28. ↑ Hermes in the Encyclopedia Astronautica , accessed on January 30, 2020 (English).
  29. ↑ ESA Crew Rescue Vehicle Studies in the Encyclopedia Astronautica , accessed on January 28, 2020 (English).
  30. ↑ http://www.esa.int/esapub/bulletin/bullet80/bluepg80.htm | quote = The Phase-A extension studies have been completed. Apart from a joint evaluation with NASA, ACRV activities will be discontinued. Crew return aspects are now being dealt with within the framework of the CTV studies
  31. ↑ Alpha Lifeboat in the Encyclopedia Astronautica (English)
  32. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20061018161727/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/alpeboat.htm with references
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  34. ↑ a b c d Keay Davidson: Survival Capsule Firm Rides Waves of Future. Los Angleles Times, May 28, 1985, accessed January 31, 2020 .
  35. ^ The Survival Systems International Lifeboat Capsule System. Survival Systems International, accessed January 31, 2020 .
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  37. ^ A b The Survival Systems International Lifeboat Capsule System. Survival Systems International, accessed January 31, 2020 .
  38. ↑ a b Homepage of Ovatek. Retrieved January 29, 2020 .
  39. ↑ Ovatek data sheet. (PDF) Ovatek Inc., accessed on January 29, 2020 .
  40. ↑ New world record set for free fall lifeboat. Retrieved February 1, 2020 (video).
  41. ↑ NINE FREE-FALL LIFEBOAT SYSTEMS. Palfinger Marine GmbH, February 8, 2018, accessed on February 2, 2020 .
  42. ↑ a b c Capsule kit for survival . In: DESIGN Magazine . 1968, p. 54–55 (English, latimes.com [accessed February 1, 2019]).
  43. ↑ a b TEMPSC 'DID YOU KNOW. Retrieved February 1, 2020 .
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  45. ↑ THE LOSS OF THE OCEAN EXPRESS (Extract from "Supply Ship Operations 2008"). Accessed January 20, 2020 (English).
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  48. Jump up ↑ Flotsam - January, hatch left open disables Indian multi-billion dollar SSBN. Deutsches U-Boot-Museum, January 2018, accessed on January 31, 2020 .
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  52. ↑ https://htka.hu/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/submarineEscapePod.jpg
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  57. ↑ Russian SIERRA Class Titanium-hulled attack sub. February 7, 2016, accessed on January 31, 2020 (English).
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  60. ↑ If a submarine gets sunk is there any way at all possible for the people on board to escape? If so, how? Quora.com, May 6, 2019, accessed January 31, 2020 .
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  68. ↑ On the guardrail past the traffic jam: Does this invention make the rescue alley superfluous? April 2, 2019, accessed February 3, 2020 .
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