City on the Magdalensberg
The city on the Magdalensberg is from the 1st century BC. Chr. To the middle of the first century n. Chr. Inhabited Norican settlement on the slopes and at the summit plateau Magdalensberg on the edge of the Carinthian Zollfeld . Before and in the initial phase of the Roman occupation, it was an important trading point, especially for Noric iron . The settlement was abandoned after the construction of the Roman city of Virunum am Zollfeld, although the documented settlement period was only around 90 years. The most significant individual find is the youth from Magdalensberg .
history
Beginning of settlement
In the third century BC The Celtic Noriker settled in what is now Carinthia. Due to the rich and high quality iron deposits ( ferrum Noricum - norisches Eisen), there was lively trade with the Mediterranean region. In 170 BC The Noriker concluded a hospitality contract with Rome (hospitium publicum) . The trade relations led around the middle of the first century BC. To the fact that Roman traders settled on the Magdalensberg and founded a market (emporium) .
The place was chosen by them because the seat of the Norse king was on the Magdalenensberg, or under the protection of the summit sanctuary, while the king's seat was in the vicinity. However, to this day, no Celtic settlement is known on the Magdalensberg, which could be due to the concentration of the excavations on the Roman era. In any case, the place was in the immediate vicinity of the iron ore deposits in the Görtschitztal ( Hüttenberger Erzberg ) and in the Lölling .
First excavations on the north side of the mountain in 2006 could one of several walls visible in the area in the period between 40 and 30 BC. BC, whereby the finds tear off before the turn of the century. The wall is made of earth and has no shell walls or wooden beams. In front of the wall there is a ditch and a contrabass. The wall resembles the Fecamp type, which is mainly to be found in the late Celtic central and northern France.
Little is known about the initial phase of the Roman market. It is likely to have been mainly a smelting place for Noric iron and simple accommodation. The importance of the square already at this time becomes clear through the consecration of the young man from Magdalensberg by two traders, which took place at this time.
Trade with Rome took off around the middle of the 1st century BC. A great boom. The reasons are assumed to be the high demand for weapons and other goods due to Caesar's Gallic campaigns and the civil wars that followed. Around this time a forum was established in the settlement . The forum was surrounded by houses, so-called taberns, some of which were sunk into the ground and served as warehouses, offices and apartments. A basilica was built on the west side , which served as a bathhouse. On the eastern narrow side there was a 30 × 17 m market basilica. This system on the southern slope below the summit area corresponds in its layout to Italian models and is unique in the inner Eastern Alps. This pre- and early Augustan construction period is followed by three more: a mature Augustan, a late Augustan-early Tiberian and an early Claudian .
In the 20s BC A fortification with a central sanctuary was built by the Norikers on the summit plateau, and it was almost representative of propaganda. The design of the dealers' buildings at this time suggests a material and cultural prosperity. The houses were built using the mortar wall technique with plastering and painted inside. Particularly noteworthy are frescoes in the second and third Pompeian style (around 20 BC) with mythological and bucolic motifs.
The prosperity of the merchants is also reflected in the rest of their lifestyle: according to Italian custom, they lived on imported garum (spicy fish sauce), olives and wine, which were served in bronze, glass and terra sigillata dishes. From portrait sculptures, the oldest in the area of today's Austria, one can infer the presence of Roman sculptors. Portraits of Noric women and inscriptions with Celtic names show that the locals had an active part in Roman culture. In addition to trade, there was extensive production of goods. In the quarter east of the forum there were workshops for processing non-ferrous metal (probably mainly brass ). Here were brooches , belt buckles and other products for local consumption and for export within the range Norian made.
Roman occupation
The incorporation into the Roman Empire 16/15 BC Took place peacefully in Noricum. As a result, the Noric traditions and tribal structures were largely preserved. For the city on the Magdalensberg, the integration was associated with an upgrade. It became the political center of the Roman Eastern Alps. This involved extensive construction work. It is possible that the previous buildings were damaged or destroyed in an earthquake - which is not documented in the sources - between 10 and 20 AD. There were extensive changes in the area of the forum: the taberns in the northwest were filled in and the praetorium was built on the site . The merchant basilica on the east side was removed and the free space increased. In the taberns on the east side, the original cellar buildings were supplemented by structures above ground.
At the time of Tiberius , the podium temple was built on the north side, initially with a four-column facade. During this time there was a major fire in the eastern area of the forum, which mainly destroyed residential buildings and warehouses. In the early Claudian era, the conversion to a peripheral temple with a six-column facade began, but was no longer completed. The non-ferrous metal workshops to the east of the forum were largely replaced by residential buildings and opened up by a street from the forum that led to a double gate on the eastern edge of the mountain hollow.
A large bathing building was erected on the terrace southwest of the forum, which replaced the original bath at the forum, which has now been converted into a state house. Large, two-story residential buildings with living areas of up to 150 m² were built on the eastern southern slope.
During this time the city reached an area of around three km². The population should have been between 3000 and 5000.
Abandonment of the settlement
Immediately before the middle of the first century, the finds in the area of the city end, with the exception of the sanctuary on the mountain top, where there are finds until late antiquity. The settlement was abandoned fairly quickly, and a number of buildings such as the temple remained unfinished. The city was replaced by the Municipium Claudium Virunum directly at the foot of the mountain in Zollfeld , which was created in the late 1940s on the site of a small street village. The road location was on the important central Norse road connection from the Danube to Italy, from here the route led to the Magdalensberg.
Like many other similar cities in the new provinces, Virunum was a planned establishment as an autonomous Roman city and took over the role of capital and possibly also the name of the city on Magdalensberg.
name of the city
The name of the town on the Magdalensberg is not known from sources. There are two theories about the name of the city.
One theory sees the city of Noreia in the city on the Magdalensberg , where the battle of Noreia between Romans and Teutons took place and which is mentioned by Caesar. Against this thesis, there are no finds on the Magdalensberg from the second century BC, in which Noreia is already mentioned. This thesis has recently been losing approval.
The assumption that the city on the Magdalensberg was called like its successor on the toll field Virunum is increasingly coming to the fore. On the one hand, newly founded Roman Municipia often took over the names of their forerunner settlements, which were mostly on hills, on the other hand, a fragment of an inscription plaque was found in the vestibule of the representative house, on which the letters VIRVN [...] can be read in the last line. Since the dedication is usually located here, this suggests the meaning VIRVN [ensis] or VIRVN [um]. Gerhard Dobesch was able to show that a founding legend of Virunum, handed down in late antique sources, refers to the town on the Magdalensberg due to the description of the location.
Otto H. Urban, on the other hand, also considers a name change from Noreia to Virunum possible.
economy
The city was the central trading center for the trade in Noric iron with the Roman Empire. From here the iron from the Hüttenberg area was partly processed and traded on a wholesale scale. Detected were ring bars (Anuli) , anvil-shaped iron bars (incudes) , disc-shaped iron bars (disci) , axes (Secure's) , hooks and brackets (unci) , nails, knives, chisels, hammers, grills, etc. The products manufactured here, too, non-ferrous metals were traded here. They were intended for Norse use, but also went to Italy. Even gold and rock crystal were traded here or further processed.
Italian ceramics, glass vessels and metal objects were imported.
The presence of a number of Upper Italian trading houses is evidenced by richly preserved incised inscriptions, purse labels (tesserae nummulariae) and calculators (calculi) . The clientele came from Rome, from Italian country towns and above all from Aquileia .
Almost all denominations of the Roman coins from the late republic and the early imperial era are represented as found coins, as well as Noric large and small silver coins, which have existed since the first half of the first century BC.
Systems on the mountain top
There was a Celtic sanctuary on the mountain top, which was surrounded by a monumental fortification, but practically no excavations have been preserved above ground. Only a few remains of the wall are visible on the approach to the church, these are part of a double gate that consisted of a 30 m long hose gate and a box gate in front. There were mighty bastions on both sides. There was a 90 m long and 30 m wide glacis in front of the gate . The summit plateau was surrounded by a double wall ring. The outer walls were up to 2.1 m thick at the base. Between the walls was a trench up to three meters wide. Inside this fortification was a third wall ring with a third gate. The gates are likely to have faced marble.
Wall dimensions, wall technology and types of mortar suggest that the complex was built by Roman fortress architects. The complex was built in the years before 20 BC. It was razed or removed again in the late August-Tiberian period. Whether the complex after the Roman occupation in 15 BC It is unclear that it was razed or destroyed in the assumed earthquake shortly afterwards and - since it was not functional - was no longer built.
In the area to the west in front of the church, a construction was excavated that was made of a clay soil or a 50 cm higher rock surface that was covered with yellow mortar. Holes were made in the rock for logs, and there are two 1.5 m deep pits inside the area. These were carefully buried and covered with marble slabs. The find can possibly be reconstructed as a roofed building with two pits, similar to the late Celtic sanctuaries in Gournay-sur-Aronde and Acy-Romance .
In the area of the church there was a podium temple , which was reconstructed after emergency excavations in 2006 as follows: The rock is flattened horizontally and vertically over an area of 25.5 × 16.5 m, so that it forms a platform that is about 2 m higher. A podium was erected on top of it, which, like the rock walls, was clad with Kraiger marble, the floor was covered with slabs. Due to the proportions (podium 85 Roman feet long, 55 feet wide and 7 feet high), the podium temple should have been six-columned and accessible via an outside staircase in the west. The older individual finds from the summit area, such as the boat driver (a clay sculpture to be understood as a votive offering), a fragment of a sacrificial bowl, parts of a robe statue, roof tiles, antefixes, cornice fragments, etc., can therefore be assigned to this building. The young man from Magdalensberg was probably placed here too. The construction date is roughly assumed to be the time after the middle of the first century BC. The sanctuary was used until late antiquity, unlike the rest of the city.
The complex can also be interpreted as a prince's seat, although this must remain hypothetical due to the fact that only the wall foundations are present. Due to the size of the facility and the involvement of Roman architects, almost only the Noriker king comes into question as a builder.
Buildings around the forum
The center of the Roman settlement was on the southern slope around 200 meters below the summit in a slight hollow. Nevertheless, in order to obtain a level surface for the forum and the surrounding buildings, the rock and earth had to be removed from the slope and filled on the south side.
Forum and dealership
The forum is 110 × 42 m in size. The path to the summit led and leads past the southern long side. Two major phases can be distinguished in the overall arrangement of the forum:
The merchant basilica was located on the east side of the republican forum from the time of the Noric Kingdom. The remaining sides were taken up by merchant taberns. These were initially made of wood; very soon they were replaced by stone houses with cellars. On the west side, the basilica of the House of Representation was built before Noricum was occupied.
The imperial forum was built after the Roman occupation: the merchant basilica was demolished and the newly built praetorium on the western north side took over its function. On the north side, the temple was built in place of the taberns located here. The existing taberns were replaced by new ones. They served as shops and workshops and had large swing gates.
Temple precinct
The temple district is in the middle on the north side of the forum two meters higher than this on the mountain side. The district measures 54.6 × 45.3 m. In the last design it was a podium temple 30 m long and 17.6 m wide. The cella measures 21 × 11 m and should be surrounded by eleven or six columns. On the long sides there was a wide courtyard and a hall. Only the substructure of the temple remains with two cellar rooms (favissae) , which were accessible through a staircase on the mountain side.
There was a smaller previous building for this temple. Both are likely to have been dedicated to the deities Divus Augustus and Dea Roma . In this case the temple would be the oldest example of the imperial cult in Austria today. The second temple, begun at the time of Claudius, remained unfinished; for example, the entrance from the forum is missing. Before the completion came the relocation of the city. Marble cladding is also missing, it was probably reused in Virunum.
For a provincial city, the temple is big. It probably stood on the site of an older Celtic sanctuary. For example, three mining pits were found in the temple district, one of which was an artificially cut roof of a man's skull. On the forum side there are wall remains of tabern buildings from the middle of the first century BC under the temple area. Chr.
In the rock wall behind the temple there is a rock sanctuary: an open niche with a fireplace and a place for an altar, behind it a shaft with broken vessels and bones (domestic animals, poultry, bears, wild boars).
Praetorium
To the west of the temple area, on the north side of the forum, was the Praetorium (room M). The basilica-like building was the seat of the administration. The room was 100 Roman feet (29.6 m) long and was surrounded on the north, south, and east sides by halls that protected from rain and sun. In the west there is a double staircase to the consultation room and a podium ( tribunal or suggestus ). On this podium, the representatives of Rome spoke law, issued decrees and chaired votes.
The consultation room (room K) was decorated with wall paintings from the Tiberian period. It was a field painting with different colored, rectangular fields.
However, this interpretation is doubted today. She sees another interpretation of the building complex as a basilica, tabularium and assembly room. In this case, the barely investigated plateau building to the northwest above the forum is being discussed as the official building.
House of Representatives
The use of the House of Representation (RP House) changed over time, which was associated with repeated renovations. It is located in a north-south facing building complex on the west side of the forum. The complex is divided into three blocks on the mountain (north) side, a three-storey block with small rooms (room L, V, W, K), a central block (A – E, I, J), and a part that was added later from two halls (room F, G). The middle block is the house of representation and consists of an entrance corridor, anteroom, niche room and an apse room (A).
During the first construction phase, at the time of the Roman traders, room A with the apse was part of a 12 m long basilica. It could have been the office of the magistri , the market administrator. The second construction period coincides with the Roman occupation in 15 BC. Together. The basilica was converted into a three-room building with an entrance corridor. Floor heating was installed in room A ( hypocaust ) , and a water basin was built in the apse. There was probably a bathtub on the north side. All of this speaks for its use as a bathing building. This assumption is supported by the existence of a water reservoir west of the building, from which a lead pipe leads into the building.
The third construction period is to be equated with the fire in AD 15. The room layout was retained, in room A the floor was raised by around one meter and the water basin was built over. Presumably it served as a meeting room in which the representatives of Rome discussed national politics with the emissaries of the Noric tribes. Room B with its 13 wall niches was used as an archive.
Residential and workshop district
The residential and workshop district, the so-called NG buildings, lay along the mountainside east of the dealer forum. Large workshops for processing non-ferrous metals were located here. Corresponding melting furnaces were unearthed, as were kettles, buckets, bottles, pots and brooches in local design that were produced here.
The houses are laid out in several terraces, on the lowest terrace there are also residential buildings. The well-preserved house NG / 33 consists of several rooms. The bedroom had a terrazzo floor , the living room a mortar screed and a niche stove. The non-load-bearing walls consisted of half-timbering (opus craticium) , a network of rods pelted with mortar.
On the ancient road to the east, the already mentioned double gate stood at the highest point on the edge of the hollow. It was built in the Tiberian period (after 14 AD), when the entire city center was redesigned. Since the settlement continues east of the gate, it is not a city gate, but a representative building.
On the uppermost terrace there is a row of small workshops on a path that goes from the double gate at an acute angle to the main path back to the west.
South-facing buildings
To the south of the forum there are large residential buildings on several mainly artificially created terraces. Among the buildings now visible are smaller, irregular houses from around 30 BC. In the Tiberian period they were replaced by regular, partly two-storey buildings with an interior area of up to 150 m². The upper floors were largely made of wood and were used in part as warehouses or shops.
AA buildings
These structures are located below the road that cuts through the excavation site and also served as a driveway back then. Here is a large building that includes a large six-room bathing area, a large bakery, a large kitchen and a 19 × 24 m courtyard (peristyle). This building was built in the Tiberian-Claudian period on older, tabern-like predecessor structures.
To the east, the lower AA buildings connect on three terraces. Some of them are two-story, elongated structures with ridge heights of up to 15 meters. The imperial gold smelter was set up in these buildings under Emperor Caligula . During the excavations, two gold ingot molds and 50 to 50 kg rock crystals were found here. In two rooms, which were surrounded on all sides by walls up to 13 m high and could only be reached via wooden stairs, the remains of 19 gold smelting furnaces were uncovered. The gold processed here came from the Gastein Tauern . Adjacent to this room there was a warehouse (AA / 44) with a safe-like adjoining room (Thesauros, AA / 45). The type of inscription on the molds suggests that the bars were imperial property.
Construction
Most of the walls were built using the opus incertum method. For this purpose, the two outer shells made of irregular rubble stones were connected to an inner core made of concrete, which is mixed with rock fragments, slag and charcoal residues. Most of the stones for the buildings were broken on site. For many buildings, the area first had to be gained from the steep terrain. The resulting rock was used for the walls. Other stones were extracted from quarries on the north side of the mountain. The stones are predominantly (around 95 percent) Ordovician tuffs / tuffites and basalts . Cast masonry ( opus caementitium ) was used to build a 6 × 10 m basin below the bathing building. The consistency of the concrete corresponds to today's standards (DIN 1045 for concrete B1 of strength class B5). For the floor in room A of the house of representation, iron rods made of ferrum noricum were used to reinforce the concrete floor. With the year of construction around 15 AD, this is the oldest evidence of the use of steel in concrete ceilings.
Marble was used for grave steles and to clad official buildings. Little has been preserved of the cladding; they were probably reused in the construction of Virunum. In the early days, inferior marble from nearby deposits was used for the grave stelae; later - probably with increasing prosperity - marble from the quarries in Gummern , Krastal and from the spy furnace was used up to 50 km away as the crow flies.
Burned roof tiles are almost completely missing on the Magdalensberg. Two possibilities are discussed: the houses were only covered with wooden shingles, or the roof tiles were reused for the construction of Virunum.
Murals
Wall paintings have been found in several rooms in the city. The time of creation spans around 80 years, from the late Caesar to the late Iberian period. Only from the last Claudian construction phase there are no wall paintings, as these buildings were no longer completed. The stylistic resemblance to the wall paintings of the classical Italian South is very strong, the artistic quality of the artists is high, so that one cannot speak of provincial art here. The style classification for the Pompeian frescoes can also be used here, the following styles can be found:
- The simple second style , after the middle of the first century BC. Chr. Can be found in the underground room OR / 23. In four wall panels on the south and west walls there are figures of gods, including Athena with the shield and Aphrodite with the Eros boy. Aphrodite is a Greek work shortly after the middle of the first century BC. Chr.
- The mature third style from the time of Tiberius is represented in room K with the paintings already mentioned. There are ten different colored fields on the three reconstructed walls. A black painted base strip runs across all walls. The west wall is in three parts, the side white fields are framed in dark red, the middle field is a light red area on a sky blue background. This central section had a painted frieze at the top with jumping dolphins and golden shells. The north wall has five fields, alternating white and yellow, with the white fields being framed in yellow and the yellow in dark red. The white central field is flanked by two columns with Ionic capitals and a pediment painted with an ornamental frieze. The east wall has two white fields framed in dark red. On all three walls, an arched frieze, painted in perspective and resting on consoles, serves as the upper wall closure. In the spandrels there are bull skulls and sound cymbals.
- The frescoes that were recovered in fragments from the rubble in room AA / 15 and reassembled, the so-called Iphigenia complex, are also placed in this period. The painter is presumed to be a master from the Hellenized south-east of the Mediterranean, who was trained in Greek painting and Greek poetry. The figures of mythology are romantically refined here. After the shadow was cast, the arrangement of the figures in the room could be reconstructed. The following scenes have been preserved or identified: Opposite the entrance to the room was a Hades scene with Theseus and Peirithoos in front of Persephone , in which both friends are being punished for their attempt to kidnap Persephone from Hades. On the wall on the left was a shepherd's scene : a naked youth is sitting playing the flute, while a scowling elderly shepherd and sheep listen intently. In the foreground is a panpipe, in the background sits a mountain god as judge of the competition (agon). Also on the left wall were three now isolated figures: Dionysus and two dancing girls who can be identified as Kassandra and Ino . The representation of Dionysus corresponds to the Bacchae of Euripides . On the right wall was Iphigenia with her hair down, a laurel wreath, a gold necklace and in her hand a greenish idol, the statue of Artemis.
Magdalensberg Archaeological Park
After the abandonment, the settlement fell into disrepair and was forgotten. At least since the discovery of the young man from Magdalensberg in 1502, however, the earlier settlement was known. The location of the church directly above a Celtic shaft suggests that the summit was used as a sanctuary. The first excavations took place in the middle of the 19th century. There have been annual excavation campaigns since 1948, during which the buildings, most of which are accessible today in the form of an open-air museum in the area of the forum, were excavated, conserved and in some cases rebuilt. The Magdalensberg Archaeological Park is a branch of the State Museum for Carinthia .
literature
- Gernot Piccottini , Hermann Vetters , with additions by Heimo Dolenz: Guide through the excavations on the Magdalensberg . Verlag des Landesmuseum für Kärnten, Klagenfurt 2003. ISBN 3-900575-24-X (main source, not individually referenced).
- Otto H. Urban: The long way to history. The prehistory of Austria (= Austrian history up to 15th BC ). Ueberreuter Verlag, Vienna 2003, ISBN 3-8000-3969-9 .
- Verena Gassner, Sonja Jilek, Sabine Ladstätter: On the edge of the empire. The Romans in Austria (= Austrian history 15th BC - 378 AD ). Ueberreuter Verlag, Vienna 2003, ISBN 3-8000-3970-2 .
- Eleny Schindler-Kaudelka: The usual utility ceramics from Magdalensberg . Verlag des Landesmuseum für Kärnten, Klagenfurt 1989, ISBN 3900575053 .
- Friedhelm Thiedig, Erich Wappis: Roman building from a scientific point of view in the city on the Magdalensberg in Carinthia. In: Carinthia II. 193/113. Volume, 2003, ISBN 3-85328-030-7 , pp. 33–128 ( PDF on ZOBODAT ).
Web links
- Gernot Piccotini: Alt-Virunum - The city on the Magdalensberg ( Memento from September 27, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
- Magdalensberg Archaeological Park
Individual evidence
- ↑ Verena Gassner, Sonja Jilek, Sabine Ladstätter: At the edge of the realm. The Romans in Austria. Ueberreuter Verlag, Vienna 2003, ISBN 3-8000-3970-2 , p. 47 .
- ↑ Wolfgang Artner, Heimo Dolenz, Eleni Schindler-Kaudelka, Martin Luik: A wall finding on Magdalensberg . In: Rudolfinum. Yearbook of the State Museum of Carinthia 2006 . Carinthia 2006, ISBN 978-3-900575-38-0 , p. 73-77 ( PDF on ZOBODAT ).
- ↑ Verena Gassner, Sonja Jilek, Sabine Ladstätter: At the edge of the realm. The Romans in Austria. Ueberreuter Verlag, Vienna 2003, ISBN 3-8000-3970-2 , p. 64 .
- ↑ Verena Gassner, Sonja Jilek, Sabine Ladstätter: At the edge of the realm. The Romans in Austria. Ueberreuter Verlag, Vienna 2003, ISBN 3-8000-3970-2 , p. 66 .
- ↑ Verena Gassner, Sonja Jilek, Sabine Ladstätter: At the edge of the realm. The Romans in Austria. Ueberreuter Verlag, Vienna 2003, ISBN 3-8000-3970-2 , p. 65 .
- ↑ Verena Gassner, Sonja Jilek, Sabine Ladstätter: At the edge of the realm. The Romans in Austria. Ueberreuter Verlag, Vienna 2003, ISBN 3-8000-3970-2 , p. 40 .
- ^ Gernot Piccottini , Hermann Vetters , with additions by Heimo Dolenz : Guide through the excavations on the Magdalensberg . Verlag des Landesmuseum für Kärnten, Klagenfurt 2003, ISBN 3-900575-24-X , p. 24 .
- ^ G. Dobesch: On Virunum as the name of the city on the Magdalensberg and on a legend of the continental Celts. In: Carinthia I . tape 187 , 1997, pp. 107 ff .
- ↑ Otto H. Urban: The long way to history. The prehistory of Austria. 2003, p. 368-370 .
- ↑ Heimo Dolenz: The excavations on the Magdalensberg summit in 2006 . In: Rudolfinum. Yearbook of the State Museum of Carinthia 2006 . Carinthia 2006, ISBN 978-3-900575-38-0 , p. 61–72 ( PDF on ZOBODAT ).
- ↑ Heimo Dolenz: The excavations on the Magdalensberg summit in 2006 . In: Rudolfinum. Yearbook of the State Museum of Carinthia 2006 . Carinthia 2006, ISBN 978-3-900575-38-0 , p. 61–72 ( PDF on ZOBODAT ).
- ↑ Heimo Dolenz: The excavations on the Magdalensberg summit in 2006 . In: Rudolfinum. Yearbook of the State Museum of Carinthia 2006 . Carinthia 2006, ISBN 978-3-900575-38-0 , p. 61–72 ( PDF on ZOBODAT ).
- ↑ Verena Gassner, Sonja Jilek, Sabine Ladstätter: At the edge of the realm. The Romans in Austria. Ueberreuter Verlag, Vienna 2003, ISBN 3-8000-3970-2 , p. 66 and the authors named there .
- ↑ Verena Gassner, Sonja Jilek, Sabine Ladstätter: At the edge of the realm. The Romans in Austria. Ueberreuter Verlag, Vienna 2003, ISBN 3-8000-3970-2 , p. 68 .
- ^ Estimate over 95% according to Friedhelm Thiedig, Erich Wappis: Römisches Bauen from a scientific point of view in the city on the Magdalensberg in Carinthia . In: Carinthia II, 193./113. Vintage . Carinthia 2003, ISBN 3-85328-030-7 , p. 33 - 128 .
- ↑ Friedhelm Thiedig, Erich Wappis: Roman building from a scientific point of view in the city on the Magdalensberg in Carinthia . In: Carinthia II, 193./113. Vintage . Carinthia 2003, ISBN 3-85328-030-7 , p. 109 .
- ↑ Friedhelm Thiedig, Erich Wappis: Roman building from a scientific point of view in the city on the Magdalensberg in Carinthia . In: Carinthia II, 193./113. Vintage . Carinthia 2003, ISBN 3-85328-030-7 , p. 110 f .
- ↑ Friedhelm Thiedig, Erich Wappis: Roman building from a scientific point of view in the city on the Magdalensberg in Carinthia . In: Carinthia II, 193./113. Vintage . Carinthia 2003, ISBN 3-85328-030-7 , p. 111-113 .
- ↑ CIL 03, 4858
- ↑ Friedhelm Thiedig, Erich Wappis: Roman building from a scientific point of view in the city on the Magdalensberg in Carinthia . In: Carinthia II, 193./113. Vintage . Carinthia 2003, ISBN 3-85328-030-7 , p. 88-92 .
- ^ Gernot Piccottini , Hermann Vetters , with additions by Heimo Dolenz: Guide through the excavations on the Magdalensberg . Verlag des Landesmuseum für Kärnten, Klagenfurt 2003, ISBN 3-900575-24-X , p. 60 .
- ^ Gernot Piccottini , Hermann Vetters , with additions by Heimo Dolenz: Guide through the excavations on the Magdalensberg . Verlag des Landesmuseum für Kärnten, Klagenfurt 2003, ISBN 3-900575-24-X , p. 103 ff .
- ↑ Verena Gassner, Sonja Jilek, Sabine Ladstätter: At the edge of the realm. The Romans in Austria. Ueberreuter Verlag, Vienna 2003, ISBN 3-8000-3970-2 , p. 214 .
- ^ Gernot Piccottini , Hermann Vetters , with additions by Heimo Dolenz: Guide through the excavations on the Magdalensberg . Verlag des Landesmuseum für Kärnten, Klagenfurt 2003, ISBN 3-900575-24-X , p. 52, 69, 73 .
- ^ Franz Glaser: Art history of Carinthia. Celts, Romans, Carantans . In: Carinthia . Klagenfurt 1996, ISBN 3-85378-465-8 , p. 88-94 .
Coordinates: 46 ° 43 ′ 29 " N , 14 ° 25 ′ 47" E
