Veltliner murder
The Veltliner Murder or Veltliner Protestantenmord (Italian: sacro macello ) from July 18 to 23, 1620 was an event in the Italian-speaking subjects of the Free State of the Three Leagues and in Poschiavo , in which a large part of the Reformed minority living there was murdered by the Catholic majority or was evicted. Depending on the source, between 300 and 600 people died. As a result of the Veltliner murder, Graubünden became a theater of war between France and Spain in the “ Bündner Wirren ” during the Thirty Years' War .
prehistory
The Valtellina as a subject of the Three Leagues
The three valleys of Valtellina , Chiavenna and Bormio had been subject to the Free State of the Three Leagues since 1512. As a result, the Drei Bünde took control of these areas, but had to respect the old rights and statutes of the valley communities. From ancient times, however, Chiavenna and Bormio had much greater freedom than the Valtellina. The authenticity of a contract between the Veltliners and the Drei Bünden, the “Promise of Teglio ” (Patti di Teglio), which also granted the Veltliners extensive rights and formally recognized them as “allies”, has remained controversial to this day. It is probably a forgery from the Reformation period, which was used to denounce the abuses of the leagues. The rulership in Valtellina was exercised by a governor in Sondrio on behalf of the Three Leagues and by Podestà (called “Commissari” in Chiavenna) in the larger towns. The costs of this administration had to be borne by the subjects. The ordinary remuneration of the Graubünden officials was very poor for the time, which led them to some personal enrichment in the office. Compared with the surrounding lordships of Milan and Venice , the freedoms in the Graubünden subject areas were, however, quite extensive due to the self-administration at the level of the Terziere and the municipalities, and the taxes remained relatively moderate. Compared to the inhabitants of the Drei Bünde, Chiavennas and Bormios, however, the Veltliners were clearly worse off.
The influence of the Reformation on the Graubünden subject areas
After the beginning of the Reformation (→ Reformation and Counter-Reformation in Switzerland ) in 1526 with the Ilanz articles in the three leagues, parity prevailed as the basis for further coexistence of the denominations. Reformed Graubünden officials began to promote reformed preachers, so-called predicants, in the subject countries. For the Catholic subjects, the parity now had the effect that as soon as one or more families joined a congregation in the Reformation, they had to share the parish church and the corresponding benefices with a Reformed parish.
Above all, the "alienation" from Catholic benefices, foundations and churches was perceived by the population who remained Catholic as a great injustice and the equality of denominations was perceived primarily as a disadvantage for Catholics. The Bundestag of the Three Leagues also took measures to hinder the Counter Reformation . Under canon law, the Graubünden subject areas and the Poschiavo valley belonged to the Diocese of Como , whose bishop, unlike that of Chur, was outside the control of the Three Leagues. Visitations by the Bishop of Como in his Graubünden parishes were therefore forbidden, the religious orders were denied the residence and the implementation of the Inquisition , the implementation of the resolutions of the Council of Trent (1545 to 1563) prohibited and the introduction of the Gregorian calendar prevented.
On the Catholic side, the spread of the "heretic movement" over the Alps aroused fears and resentment, especially among the Pope and in Spain, to which the Duchy of Milan had fallen. The Italian-speaking reformed printing company Landolfi in Poschiavo was seen as the biggest problem , where fonts were also put to print that had been placed on the index of forbidden books by Rome and that had now entered Italy via the Valtellina. Various attempts by Milan to regain possession of the lost territories failed, and as a result of the Müsserkriege , the Duchy of Milan had to recognize the sovereignty of the leagues over the three valleys in 1531. The Drei Bünde lost the area of the Tre Pievi, which forms the key to the whole of Valtellina. At the upper end of Lake Como , Milan began to build strong fortifications under Spanish rule, in particular the fortress Fuentes .
The contrast between ruling countries and subjects deepened even further through the Reformation. Within the Veltliner society, mainly educated circles and some noble families joined the Reformation, be it out of conviction or opportunity. The converts were expelled from their common and large families and ostracized and were no longer considered part of the valley community, but rather "Bündner agents".
The strategic location of the Valtellina in the context of Habsburg politics
The valleys of Chiavenna, Valtellina and Bormio have been of great strategic importance since ancient times, as they are crossed by numerous traffic connections between the Po Valley and the north side of the Alps. The most important were traditionally the Septimer , Splügen and Malojapass from Chiavenna to Chur and Innsbruck . With the acquisition of Milan by Habsburg in 1536, other passes gained importance, such as the Umbrail and the Stilfser Joch , via which a direct connection between the Habsburg possessions in Tyrol and Milan would have been possible. On the other hand, the Apricapass from Edolo to Tirano was the only land connection between the Republic of Venice with Germany and France that was not yet controlled by Habsburg . The Splügen Pass was also of increased importance, as it represented a possible gateway into the Duchy of Milan for France.
In the areas controlled by the three leagues, two important strategic axes overlap: Vienna – Milan (Habsburg / Spain) and Paris – Venice – Rome (France / Venice / Pope). The struggle of the great powers Habsburg Spain and France for the Bündner passes 1618–1648 during the Thirty Years' War was the result of the strategic position of the Three Leagues.
The "Criminal Court of Thusis" and the intervention of Austria in Graubünden
The conflict between the Reformed and Catholic parties in the Three Leagues played an important role in triggering the Veltliner murder. The reformed party sought to renew the alliance with the Republic of Venice , which had expired in 1613. Their most important representative was Jörg Jenatsch , the reformed pastor of Scharans . The Catholic party wanted to bring the Three Leagues into an alliance with Spain and Austria, which they hoped would strengthen the Counter Reformation. The main leaders of this party were the brothers Rudolf and Pompejus Planta .
To build up additional pressure, Spain closed its border in the Duchy of Milan to trade with the Three Leagues. Following a reformed synod in Bergün in April 1618, there was therefore an uprising against the Spanish party. Numerous prominent partisans from Spain and people who were particularly hated by the Reformed were arrested, including the Catholic archpriest Nicolò Rusca from Sondrio . In Thusis from August 1618 to January 1619 a criminal court was held over the Spanish Catholic party. Rusca was tortured to death and the bishop of Chur, Johann Flugi , banned from the country and declared deposed. Another 157 people were convicted and executed if one could get hold of them. Among those who fled was Rudolf Planta and his nephew, the Veltlin knight Giacomo Robustelli from Grosotto . The displaced people campaigned for support in the Confederation and Austria. In the German Empire, Ferdinand II was elected Roman-German Emperor in 1619 . He was known for his tough line against the Reformed, whom he had almost completely converted or driven out in his domain in the Habsburg hereditary lands. After Rudolf Planta's request for help, Ferdinand developed an invasion plan in 1620 that envisaged a simultaneous attack from Milan and the Vinschgau .
The events during the Veltliner murder on 18./19. July 1620
In Valtellina, after the kidnapping and execution of Nikolaus Rusca, the popular mood was clearly against the Graubünden people and against the Reformed in their own ranks. Jakob Robustelli returned to the Valtellina after his exile and began to organize an uprising against the Grisons. With support from Spain and Austria, the people of Graubünden and their partisans were to be driven out of the country by force. Robustelli recruited a number of Catholic nobles and partisans in Valtellina with Spanish money to take control with one stroke.
On the night of July 18-19, 1620, the Catholic uprising began in Tirano under the leadership of Jakob Robustelli, Marc Anton Venosta von Grosio, Vincent Venosta von Mazzo, and Francis Venosta von Tirano. The city gates were occupied by the conspirators in the early hours of the morning and all people were called into the street by ringing bells. Then all Reformed people who could be caught were killed. The Graubünden judge, the podiums of Tirano and Teglio and another 60 people were killed. In the Grisons valley of Poschiavo, the Reformed learned about the events in Tirano on the same day and tried to rush to the aid of their co-religionists. However, the conspirators had already blocked the way at Piattamala Castle . In contemporary Reformed sources, the Julian calendar places events on July 9th.
On Sunday, July 19, Robustelli and his troop moved to Teglio , where Azzo and Carlo Besta, two local nobles, joined the conspiracy. Under her leadership, the Reformed were surprised during the service. The resistance of some brave people in the church tower was quickly overcome by setting the tower on fire. The murder of Anton Besta, "the most pious, richest, and best qualified nobleman in the whole country," the closest cousin of Azzo and Carlo Besta, finds special mention in contemporary sources. 62 people died in Teglio, including the Reformed pastor Jan Peider Danz from Graubünden .
Then Sondrio was attacked. 73 armed reformers, including Pastor Jenatsch, holed up in the governor's palace, where they were besieged by around 1,000 men. Ultimately, this group was given free travel over the Murettopass into the Engadine. Nevertheless, around 140 people died in Sondrio and the surrounding area, and some Reformed people were transferred to the Inquisition in Milan . The Graubünden officials were also expelled, but if they were Catholic they were left alive. The insurgents hurried to introduce the new Gregorian calendar and to give up all goods of the Reformed for looting. In contemporary Reformed sources it is pointed out again and again that most of the Reformed families were very wealthy and that this was an important motivation for the farmers in the area to take part in the killing and looting. On the one hand, they were able to enrich themselves personally, but also destroy mortgage notes and acquire land ownership deeds. For another three days, Reformed families and individuals were murdered and expelled throughout the Valtellina.
On Tuesday, July 22nd, the Veltliners also invaded the Grisons valley community of Poschiavo , where part of the local Catholic leadership cooperated with them. In Brusio came around the 30 Reformed order, the big part of the community had been warned, however, and was able to Cavaglia level retreat and flee from there to the Engadine.
The Veltliner religious refugees found acceptance in the three leagues and the reformed cities of Zurich, St. Gallen and Geneva. Depending on the sources, between 300 and 600 people are said to have been murdered.
The consequence of the Veltliner murder: Veltliner independence, cup war and Bündner turmoil
As a result of the Valtellina murder, the Valtellina and Bormio valleys declared themselves independent, only Chiavenna remained with the Three Leagues. In Sondrio, the Veltliner aristocrats chose Jakob Robustelli as their regent. Three days later, Austrian troops moved into the Münstertal and built a fortification near St. Maria to control the route over the Umbrail. Spanish troops moved into Valtellina from Milan. The reformed Bündner valley communities tried in vain to recapture the Valtellina. A raid over Chiavenna and the Muretto Pass ended in a crushing defeat near Morbegno on August 2nd.
The Three Leagues then called on the Swiss Confederation for help. The Catholic towns refused to give any support, however, and civil war almost broke out because the Catholics wanted to prevent the Reformed cities of Bern and Zurich from moving troops to Graubünden. Under Colonels Hans Jakob Steiner from Zurich, Nikolaus von Mülinen from Bern and Johannes Guler from Bünden, around 3,000 men moved over the Casanna and Foscagno passes to Bormio. During the events known as the "Chalice War", the Reformed plundered the Catholic churches, desecrated altars and murdered priests and religious. During the advance to Tirano, however, the Reformed troops were ambushed and defeated. The Bündner and their allies then withdrew from Bormio.
As a result of the defeat at Tirano, the Free State of the Three Leagues had to give up its subjects for the time being. In the following years the Three Leagues got sucked into the Thirty Years' War . During the “ Bündner Wirren ”, the people of Graubünden changed coalitions several times between Spain-Austria, the Pope and Venice-France. On January 15, 1622, the Bünder had to formally renounce the Valtellina in exchange for an annual tribute of 25,000 guilders. The controversial valley came to the Pope for a short time after the intervention of France and Venice.
In 1624, with support from France and the Swiss Confederation, the Grisons invaded Valtellina again, but they soon had to withdraw and the valley fell under Spanish control again. Negotiations about the final fate of the former Graubünden subjects were held for years, but all of them were unsuccessful. When Spain marched through the Valtellina with a large army in 1634 and defeated the Swedes at Nördlingen , France decided to intervene again in the Valtellina. In 1635, the French general in the Three Leagues, Duke Henri II. De Rohan , attacked the Spaniards and defeated Spanish-Austrian armies at Mazzo on July 2, at Fraele on October 31, and at Morbegno on November 10, thereby gaining the Control over the Addatal.
The Drei Bünde demanded the unconditional return of the Valtellina and Bormio valleys from France, which Rohan did not allow. In a conference in Chiavenna in 1636 he tried to increase the autonomy of the subjects significantly. However, the leagues refused to agree and on September 3, 1639 concluded an alliance with Spain, which in exchange left Valtellina and Bormio to the three leagues again. The only restriction Spain insisted on a ban on the Reformed faith and on unhindered access for the Bishop of Como and the Counter Reformation to the valleys. The treaty between the Three Leagues and Spain, the so-called "Capitulate", has since formed a kind of constitution for the Valtellina.
literature
- Enrico Besta : Storia della Valtellina e della Val Chiavenna. Volume 1: Dalle Origini alla Occupazione Grigiona (= Raccolta di Studi Storici sulla Valtellina. 7, ZDB -ID 433880-7 ). 2a edizione. Giuffrè, Milan 1955.
- Sandro Liniger: Society in the Dispersion: Social Order and Conflict in Early Modern Graubünden , in: Threatened Orders , Volume 7, Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 2017, ISBN 978-3-161549-33-5
- Friedrich Pieth : Bündnergeschichte. Schuler, Chur 1945.
- Alexander Pfister: Jörg Jenatsch. His life and his time. 4th edition, revised and expanded by an additional chapter by Jon Mathieu . Terra-Grischuna-Buchverlag, Chur 1984, ISBN 3-908133-03-3 .
- Heinrich Reinhardt: The Veltliner Murder in its Immediate Consequences for the Confederation , History Friend, Volume 40, Einsiedeln, September 1885
- Andreas Wendland: The benefits of passports and the endangerment of souls. Spain, Milan and the Battle of Valtellina, 1620–1641. Chronos, Zurich 1995, ISBN 3-905311-65-8 .
- Andreas Wendland: Violence in matters of faith. Der Veltliner Mord (1620) , in: Markus Meumann and Dirk Niefanger: A scene of harsh fear: Perception and representation of violence in the 17th century , Wallstein 1997, ISBN 978-3-892442-34-9 , pp. 223-240.
Web links
- Martin Bundi: Veltliner Murder. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland .
Individual evidence
- ↑ Hansruedi Näf: Jenatsch - In a nutshell! Crüzer, Stampa 2017, pp. 23–36