Anglo-Spanish War (1727-1729)

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Anglo-Spanish War
The Spanish liner »Catalán« in action with the English »HMS Mary«; Painting by Rafael Monleón
The Spanish liner »Catalán« in action with the English »HMS Mary«; Painting by Rafael Monleón
date February 11, 1727 to November 9, 1729
place Caribbean , Gibraltar
output Contractual agreement
Peace treaty Treaty of Seville
Parties to the conflict

Spain 1506Spain Spain

Great Britain kingdomKingdom of Great Britain Great Britain

The Anglo-Spanish War was a military conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Spain . Although the first fighting began in the Caribbean in the summer of 1726 , it was not until the outbreak of open confrontation in Europe on February 11, 1727 that there was general talk of war. The formally undeclared state of war between the two states was the climax of a pan-European crisis, on one side of which stood the Herrenhausen Alliance and on the other the partners of the Vienna Treaty . The outbreak of a general war could, however, be prevented diplomatically. The fighting was essentially limited to maritime operations in the Caribbean without major sea ​​battles occurring. In Europe, the unsuccessful siege of the British base of Gibraltar was the only significant conflict. The Anglo-Spanish conflict formally ended on November 9, 1729 with the conclusion of the Treaty of Seville and the restoration of the status quo ante . However, the fundamental differences between the two states were not resolved, which led to the outbreak of another war barely ten years later .

prehistory

Portrait of Philip V of Spain
Philip V of Spain (1683-1746); Painting by Jean Ranc , 1723

The Kingdom of Spain was one of the early 18th century to the "losers" in the European powers system (Duchhardt). During the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), a new Bourbon dynasty was installed on the Spanish throne under Philip V (1683–1746), a grandson of Louis XIV . In the years and decades that followed, these rulers carried out some reforms in the country's ailing state and military system. Philip V, however, was not an energetic personality. In many ways he left foreign policy to his ambitious wife, Elisabetta Farnese (1692–1766). Spain suffered significant territorial losses with the Peace of Utrecht in 1714. In addition to the Italian possessions, the Spanish Netherlands was lost to the Habsburgs , while the bases of Gibraltar and Menorca fell to Great Britain . In addition, the Spanish government had to transfer the rights to the slave trade between Africa and the American colonies to the British traders (→ Asiento de Negros ) and agree that an English merchant ship could trade with the Spanish colonies in South America every year . The attempt to revise these losses in the war of the Quadruple Alliance (1718–1720) failed and led to the almost complete isolation of Spain's foreign policy. Nevertheless, the Spanish queen continued to pursue the goal of providing her children with a secondary education in Italy, which became a constant source of unrest in European politics.

On the other hand, Austria also isolated itself with the policy of Charles VI. Ultimately, the latter was just as unwilling to accept the conditions of the Utrecht Peace Work, which demanded that he renounce most of the Spanish heritage, and refused to compromise with Spain. On the other hand, he competed with the naval powers when he entered overseas trade with the Ostend Company from 1722 . In addition, the emperor demanded the recognition of female succession in his countries (→ pragmatic sanction ). The mixing of these two concerns made imperial politics unsteady and fickle.

“After the Quadruple Alliance had been effectively put into inactivity, Europe was permanently on the verge of a new, comprehensive war - the old, as yet unsolved problems between Vienna and Madrid and the new problems (Ostend Company, Pragmatic Sanction) left an atmosphere of“ cold War "emerged that was potentially explosive."

- Heinz Duchhardt (historian)

In the summer of 1724, a meeting of all those involved should take place at a congress to overcome these tensions.

Initiation of the European crisis

Map of the alliances in Europe 1725/30
“So the whole of Europe was divided into two camps. All the major powers, with the exception of Savoy, which remained neutral, had sided with one or the other alliance. A huge war threatened between two groups of states, one of which had the undoubted superiority at sea, the other one on land. " (Max Immich)

In Spain, expectations of the Cambrai Congress were high. During the war of the Quadruple Alliance, the British First Minister James Stanhope had offered the Spanish government the return of Gibraltar in the course of negotiations. In 1721, King George I once again promised the return of the base in a personal letter - admittedly without this being enforceable in Parliament - and in the same year a Spanish-French-British defensive alliance was formed. However, these overtures had raised Spanish expectations on a lasting basis. However, since there were unsuccessful disputes in Cambrai about the dissolution of the Ostend Company, the secondary education in Italy and the restitution of Gibraltar, the Spanish government got the impression that the far-reaching goals could only be achieved through a compromise with Vienna. In secret negotiations brokered by the Dutchman Juan Guillermo Riperdá (1684–1737), both sides agreed on a far-reaching cooperation, the key points of which were set out in the Treaty of Vienna on May 1, 1725 : Both rulers recognized each other's rule and territorial integrity on, Spain guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction , Charles VI. agreed to the establishment of the secondary schools and assured his support in the recovery of Gibraltar by Spain. Ultimately, the Spanish government granted the Ostend Company extensive trade concessions. The news of the conclusion of the treaty "hit like a bomb" and quickly led to the dissolution of the Cambrai Congress.

In London , the Vienna alliance was seen as a threat to its own world trade and Gibraltar, which is why the influential first minister Robert Walpole (1676–1745) initiated a diplomatic reaction. He could rely on French support, because at the court of the young Louis XV. On the one hand, they feared the competing claims of Philip V on the French crown and, on the other hand, were shaped by hereditary hostility to Austria. The Kingdom of Prussia , which had been allied with Great Britain since 1723 (→ Treaty of Charlottenburg ), had broken off diplomatic contacts with Vienna in the dispute over the county of Jülich-Berg . With the death of the Russian Emperor Peter I, King Friedrich Wilhelm I had lost an important ally and was now seeking support from the Western powers. These three states concluded the Herrenhausen Alliance on September 3, 1725 , which was supposed to guarantee the security of all those involved and at the same time prevent Spain and Austria from becoming stronger. The Ostend Company was to be dissolved, the German Protestants protected and the Prussian claims to Jülich-Berg enforced.

Portrait of Juan Guillermo Riperdá
Juan Guillermo Riperdá (1684–1737), mediated the Spanish-Austrian negotiations; anonymous painting, 1740

The establishment of two groups of powers aggravated the situation in Europe. On November 5, 1725, the Austrian and Spanish governments agreed on military agreements in the event of war. Both powers promised to support each other with troops and had already agreed to divide up some French provinces. In addition, the marriage of two younger daughters of Charles VI was in the treaty amendment. provided with the sons of Elisabetta Farneses . The partners of the Herrenhausen alliance also made military means. Prussian troops were to enter Silesia together with a Hanoverian brigade, while France was to attack either Italy or the Rhine . Great Britain should be left to conduct naval warfare.

Both alliances also sought new partners, with Russia , an established European power since the Great Northern War , playing a central role. However, this combined the European crisis with an unresolved conflict situation in the Baltic Sea region. The House of Holstein-Gottorf had family ties to the Romanov dynasty since 1724 and tried, with Russian support, to enforce claims to Schleswig, which was annexed by Denmark after the Northern War. France and Great Britain, however, did not want to allow Russia to settle in the western Baltic Sea and in turn supported Denmark. It was therefore only a matter of time before Empress Catherine I (1683–1727) sought to join the Habsburg Empire on August 6, 1726, especially since both states had a common enemy through the Ottoman Empire .

In the Holy Roman Empire , on the other hand, the Electorate of Saxony (and thus also Poland-Lithuania ) and Bavaria were partners in the Treaty of Vienna. With his support for the emperor , August the Strong (1670–1733) achieved his later guarantee that his son would inherit in Poland. On the other hand, the United Netherlands joined the Herrenhausen Alliance in the same year because they too wanted to eliminate competition from the Ostend Company. On the other hand, British-French attempts to win the Ottoman Empire into an alliance failed. The contemporary witness Franz Dominc Häberlin expressed the general mood of the time: "Towards the end of the year everything can be set for the outbreak of a bloody war."

Course of the fighting

In Britain too, it was believed that war was imminent; therefore hasty preparations for armed conflict were made. Since August 1725, the fortifications in Gibraltar had been repaired under the direction of the British Governor Richard Kane . During 1726, Minister Walpole used the Royal Navy as a foreign policy leverage. The British Mediterranean squadron was reinforced and a squadron under Admiral Charles Wager was sent to the Baltic Sea , which blocked the port of Reval from May to September 1726 in order to intimidate the Russian government and prevent its fleet from sailing. A third squadron under Rear Admiral Francis Hosier was supposed to disrupt Spanish trade in the Caribbean and block the port of Portobelo at the same time . Walpole hoped that this would be a double success. In this way, the aim was to prevent the Spanish silver fleet from reaching Europe and thus giving the Vienna allies additional financial resources. On the other hand, it was intended to demonstrate to Philip V how dependent he and his colonial empire were on British goodwill.

But the government in Spain was in no way inferior to that in London in choosing aggressive means. So far, the Madrid and Vienna governments have not been in agreement on war. They had prepared it, but while this was viewed as a purely defensive precaution in Vienna, a pan-European armed conflict seemed to serve the interests of the Spanish government. Believing that they were covered by the Vienna Alliance, Philip V and Elisabetta Farnese, against the advice of their new Chief Minister José de Patiño y Morales, decided to take an open course of confrontation with Great Britain when the first news of British actions came in from the Caribbean . In December 1726, all British trade privileges were unilaterally revoked.

On January 1, 1727, Philip V sent a letter to the British government which declared paragraph 10 of the Treaty of Utrecht , which guaranteed Great Britain's possession of Gibraltar, null and void. The reason he gave was that the British garrison had acted contrary to the treaty when they expanded the fortifications and supported the smuggling. In addition, the Catholic Church in the city would have been hindered. In fact, these points were not entirely out of thin air and now served as a suitable pretext for war. The note was therefore equivalent to a declaration of war. On February 11, 1727 the military attack on Gibraltar was initiated. Although no official declaration of war was made, both states were in a state of war by this point at the latest.

Operations in the Caribbean

Map of Fleet Operations in the Caribbean
The Operations of the English and Spanish Fleets in the Caribbean 1726–1728

With the arrival of the British squadron under Rear-Admiral Hosier in the Caribbean, de facto British-Spanish hostilities began. On June 16, 1726, the 15 ships and 4,750 men arrived off Bastimentos . According to Walpole's orders, Hosier began the blockade of Portobelo in order to relocate the silver fleet and thus the major financial forces to Europe. However, the orders precluded a direct attack on the city.

In fact, the silver fleet was just being equipped in Portobelo. The local governor was concerned about the arrival of the English squadron and asked Hosier for the reason for their presence. Hosier said he wanted to escort the English annual merchant ship Royal George . However, after the Royal George had left Portobelo and the English warships were still in front of the port, the Spaniards decided to hold back the silver fleet and move the cargo overland to Vera Cruz . Hosier now went over to the open blockade. In the summer, the British managed to arrest some Spanish ships. The operations off Portobelo lasted about six months, during which time yellow fever broke out among the crew. As the team strength continued to decline, Hosier finally ran to the English base in Jamaica , which he reached on December 24, 1726. There he replenished supplies, hired new crews and had the crew members cured. After two months it ran out again. However, the Spaniards took advantage of this interruption in the British blockade. A small Spanish fleet set sail from Vera Cruz and reached Havana . A Spanish fleet from Europe with 2000 soldiers had already arrived there on August 13th, commanded by Don José Antonio Castañeta . Castañeta united the ships from Vera Cruz with his own and left Havana unnoticed by the British on January 24, 1727. He reached the Spanish mainland safely on March 8, 1727 with 31 million pesos.

Admiral Hosier set sail again at the end of February 1727 and reached Havana on April 2nd. However, since the Spanish silver fleet had escaped, he crossed unsuccessfully before Cartagena . Yellow fever continued to claim many victims. Hosier himself succumbed to the disease on August 23, 1727. He was replaced by Captain Edward St. Loe , commander of HMS Superb , who after a few weeks also returned to Jamaica to refresh. There took Vice-Admiral Edward Hopson on 29 January 1728 command and ran again in February to the coast of Central America from. However, this commander also died as a result of the yellow fever, so that on May 8, 1728 Edward St. Loe again took over the supreme command. He also died on April 22, 1729. After the preliminary peace had been signed in March of this year, the fleet now returned to England. At that time, the English expedition had cost the lives of around 4,000 seamen and soldiers. Almost all of them had died as a result of yellow fever.

Siege of Gibraltar

Contemporary engraving of the Siege of Gibraltar in 1727
The Siege of Gibraltar in 1727; Contemporary copper engraving

At the beginning of 1727 Philip V gathered his leading military officers to deliberate on Gibraltar. The Marquis de Villadarias , who had already attempted to conquer the fortress in 1705 , advised against an attack unless the sea had been conquered beforehand. But a powerful fleet has been lacking since the defeat in the sea ​​battle off Cape Passero (August 11, 1718). While most of the generals agreed, the Marquis de las Torres thought he was up to the task. He therefore took command of 18,500 infantry , 700 cavalry and about 100 artillery pieces around San Roque . The Spanish army was made up to a large extent of Dutch, Italians, Corsicans and Sicilians, but also Irish, French and Swiss in Spanish service (19 battalions ), which were joined by many militiamen from the province of Málaga . Only ten battalions of the siege army were actually regular Spanish soldiers. The artillery was brought from the fortress of Cadiz with great logistical difficulties . De las Torres had the Spanish trenches and walls built by around 3,000 civilians. The winter weather and insufficient supplies for the army soon made themselves felt. On the British side, preparations for a siege had already begun a few months earlier. Now a fleet under Admiral Sir Charles Wager was sent from Great Britain to support the fortress. On board the ships were in addition to the new commanding officer of the fortress General Jasper Clayton , parts of three regiments to reinforce the four occupation regiments on site. Thus the crew reached a strength of 3206 soldiers.

The siege began on February 11, 1727, and it soon became apparent that the Spaniards were at a disadvantage. The British fleet limited the attack possibilities to the narrow headland, which, however, was under fire from the British fortress artillery. De las Torres therefore planned to first destroy the fortifications with artillery fire and then storm them with his infantry. Therefore, the besiegers dug initially Approchen to approach the fortress. The fight was limited to the effect of the respective cannons and occasional skirmishes at the outposts . On March 24th, the Spanish guns were positioned so far that De las Torres could begin the bombing. This lasted ten days and caused numerous damage to the British positions, which could not be repaired adequately even with the help of all civilians in the fortress. From April 2nd, however, a period of bad weather set in, which hindered both sides equally. During this time the British garrison was increased to 5481 men by further reinforcements (2½ regiments). From May 7 to May 20, De las Torres had another bombardment carried out, which put numerous British artillery out of action. But then the supplies of powder and cannonballs failed again. After diplomacy had meanwhile given up the direct course of confrontation, an armistice was also reached in front of Gibraltar on June 23, 1727.

The siege had lasted 17½ weeks. By protecting the fleet, the supply of the British garrison was better guaranteed than that of the Spaniards, whose supply was insufficient. This was also reflected in the number of deserters. For example, when a prisoner exchange took place for the first time on April 16, 1727, 24 British were exchanged for 400 Spaniards. On the British side, alcoholism was a more serious problem. The British troops recorded 107 dead, 208 wounded and 17 deserters (a total of 332 men), while the Spaniards had 700 killed, 825 wounded and 875 deserters (a total of 2,400 men).

Resolution of the European crisis

Portrait of Don Carlos, later King Larl III. from Spain
Don Carlos , later Charles III. of Spain (1716-1788); Painting by Jean Ranc , 1725

The expansion of the war to all of Europe, which Spain had hoped for, did not materialize. Emperor Charles VI. Just because of the Ostend Company did not want to plunge into a European war, especially since the promised Spanish subsidies fell short of the promises. In France, too, where Cardinal Fleury (1653–1743) had determined politics since July 1726 , there was little inclination to go to war. Fleury sought rapprochement with Spain and also saw an Anglo-Spanish war as an obstacle to French commercial interests. He therefore mediated between Great Britain and Austria shortly before these two states also got caught up in a war. Great Britain had already attacked ships of the Ostend Company and prepared to send troops to the Holy Roman Empire, while Austria had unilaterally cut off diplomatic contacts with London. Fleury managed to mediate, which led to the conclusion of a preliminary peace in Paris on May 31, 1727 . In it, the emperor undertook to suspend the Ostend Company for seven years and resigned from the commercial connections with Spain agreed in the Vienna Treaty. The differences should be settled at a new congress. The Spanish government joined the Paris Preliminary Peace so as not to isolate itself completely after the apostasy of its only ally. However, when King George I died just days later , this raised hopes in Spain that they would benefit from supporting the Stuart pretender . For the time being, the siege of Gibraltar was continued and an understanding was avoided. Only after George II had ascended the throne without any circumstances, the capture of Gibraltar did not succeed and the Spanish finances made a continuation of the conflict seem hopeless, did the Madrid government give in. They ended the siege and reaffirmed British trade privileges. On March 6, 1728, she signed the Pardo Convention, which ended naval warfare.

On June 14, 1728 the Soissons Congress met, which initially remained without progress. However, the alliances slowly dissolved. So Prussia had joined the Herrenhausen Alliance in order to receive support for its claims to the county of Jülich-Berg. But when the States General had joined the alliance and rejected Prussian rule in the neighboring area, there was no support from Great Britain and France. Prussia therefore signed a secret treaty with Austria as early as 1726 and officially joined the Vienna Alliance during the Soissons Congress on December 23, 1728 (→ Treaty of Berlin (1728) ). Elisabetta Farnese simultaneously urged Charles VI. on the marriage of her son Don Carlos to the emperor's eldest daughter, Maria Theresa . From Vienna, however, we received a rejection in claused form. With the support of Great Britain and France, the Spanish Queen wanted to secure at least her son's secondary education in Italy. In the Treaty of Seville on November 9, 1729, the Anglo-Spanish conflict was settled. Spain officially dissolved its alliance with the emperor, dropped claims to Gibraltar and formally affirmed British commercial rights in Spanish territories. In return, France and Great Britain guaranteed the establishment of the Spanish secondary school in the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza and in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, as well as the transfer of 6,000 Spanish soldiers there to secure these areas militarily.

The imperial government in Vienna opposed the establishment of Spanish rule in Italy whenever possible. They moved an army of 30,000 men to their Italian possessions, which occupied the Duchy of Parma in January 1731 after the last ruling duke died. Once again it looked briefly like a war between the remaining partners of the Vienna Treaty (Austria, Russia, Prussia) and the partners of the Seville Treaty (Spain, France, Great Britain, States General). However, on March 16, 1731, another agreement was reached in Vienna . Against the guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction recognized Charles VI. the Spanish secondary school in the Italian duchies. He withdrew his troops, whose garrisons were taken over by Spanish soldiers who had reached Italy on British ships. In March 1732, Don Carlos came to power in Parma-Piacenza. This resolved a major point of conflict in European diplomacy.

Consequences of the conflict

Contemporary illustrated print with the poem "Admiral Hosiers Ghost" by Richard Glover
Edition of the poem "Admiral Hosier's Ghost" by Richard Glover , 1740

The Seville Treaty had restored the status quo without either side gaining any advantage. This result was received cautiously in Great Britain in particular. Parliament had approved three million pounds for the war, almost all of which had been spent on the fighting over Gibraltar. Added to this was the cost of sending Admiral Hosier's fleet to the Caribbean, the only result of which had been the deaths of thousands of sailors and three admirals. It was precisely this disaster that caused massive criticism of the Walpole government. But Walpole saw the future of Great Britain in a strict policy of neutrality, so that the prevented escalation of the conflict was already a success for him. Even in the War of the Polish Succession (1733–1735 / 38), which broke out a few years later , he maintained this policy, even if he led the country into foreign policy isolation. But the points of contention between Spain and Great Britain had not been resolved, so it was only a matter of time before a new war broke out between the two states, for almost the same reasons, just ten years after the Treaty of Seville. This war, the War of Jenkins' Ear , was this time called for by the British public and soon led to the overthrow of Walpole.

Vice Admiral Edward Vernon became one of the greatest critics of the government's politics and warfare . He himself had served in the fleets that had been sent to the Baltic Sea and in support of Gibraltar. Now he used his mandate in the English Parliament to publicly denounce the miserable organization of the Caribbean expedition and the death of Admiral Hosier and his seamen. In 1738/39 he became one of the main proponents of a policy of confrontation towards Spain and soon afterwards commanded a squadron of six ships that were sent to the Caribbean. He succeeded in wiping out Hosier's saddle by conquering Portobelo on November 23, 1739, before so many compatriots had died twelve years earlier. The disaster of the first Caribbean expedition was still present in the British public, and Vernon's triumph was all the more enthusiastic. The poet Richard Glover (1712–1785) then wrote the ballad Admiral Hosier's Ghost , in which it was about the fact that Vernon the ghost of Hosier appeared, congratulated him on the success and asked for the reputation of the dead in their homeland to be restored publicly so that they could find peace now. This was also a clear spike against the previous policy of Walpole, who had forbidden Hosier to attack Portobelo in the interests of de-escalation.

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Web links

literature

  • Heinz Duchhardt: Balance of Power and Pentarchy - International Relations 1700–1785. Schöningh, Paderborn 1997 (=  Handbook of the History of International Relations. Volume 4), ISBN 3-506-73724-4 .
  • Max Immich: History of the European State System from 1660 to 1789. , Volume 2, Munich / Berlin 1905.
  • William GF Jackson: The Rock of the Gibraltarians - A History of Gibraltar. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, Rutherford 1987, ISBN 0-8386-3237-8 .
  • Alfred T. Mahan : The Influence of Sea Power on History. Koehlers Verlagsgesellschaft, Herford 1967 (German edition of the work first published in English in 1890).
  • David Marley: Wars of the Americas - A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the New World 1492 to the Present. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara 1999, ISBN 0-87436-837-5 .
  • NAM Rodger: The Command of the Ocean - A Naval History of Britain 1649-1815. Volume 2, Allen Lane, London 2004, ISBN 0-7139-9411-8 .

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Heinz Duchhardt: Balance of Power and Pentarchie - International Relations 1700–1785 , Paderborn / Munich 1997, p. 166
  2. ^ Basically on Spain in this age, cf. Heinz Duchhardt: Balance of Power and Pentarchy - International Relations 1700–1785 , Paderborn / Munich 1997, pp. 166–172.
  3. ↑ Heinz Duchhardt: Balance of Power and Pentarchie - International Relations 1700–1785 , Paderborn / Munich 1997, p. 272.
  4. ↑ a b Max Immich: history of the European state system from 1660 to 1789 , Munich / Berlin 1905 S. 262nd
  5. ^ Heinz Duchhardt: Balance of Power and Pentarchy - International Relations 1700–1785. Paderborn / Munich 1997, pp. 267, 269.
  6. ^ Heinz Duchhardt: Balance of Power and Pentarchie - International Relations 1700–1785 , Paderborn / Munich 1997, pp. 267, 273.
  7. ↑ Max Immich: history of the European state system from 1660 to 1789 , Munich / Berlin 1905, S. 260f.
  8. ^ Charles Arnold-Baker: The Companion to British History , London 1996, p. 560.
  9. ^ Heinz Duchhardt: Balance of Power and Pentarchy - International Relations 1700–1785. Paderborn / Munich 1997, p. 275f.
  10. ↑ Franz Dominic Häberlin: Full Draft Political History of the XVIII. Century , part 1, Hannover 1748, p. 447.
  11. ↑ Heinz Duchhardt: Balance of Power and Pentarchie - International Relations 1700–1785 , Paderborn / Munich 1997, pp. 274, 278.
  12. ↑ For the exact British treaty violations, cf. William GF Jackson: The Rock of the Gibraltarians - A History of Gibraltar , Rutherford 1987, pp. 124-127.
  13. ^ A b David Marley: Wars of the Americas - A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the New World 1492 to the Present , Santa Barbara 1999, p. 375.
  14. ^ NAM Rodger: The Command of the Sea - A Naval History of Britain 1649-1815. Volume 2, London 2004, p. 232.
  15. ↑ St. Loe, Edward , in: John Knox Laughton: Dictionary of National Biography , Vol. 50, 1885/1900, p. 172.
  16. ^ Charles Phillips, Alan Axelrod: Encyclopedia of Wars. Volume 1, New York 2005, p. 91.
  17. ^ William GF Jackson: The Rock of the Gibraltarians - A History of Gibraltar. Rutherford 1987, p. 124.
  18. ^ William GF Jackson: The Rock of the Gibraltarians - A History of Gibraltar. Rutherford 1987, pp. 127f.
  19. ^ William GF Jackson: The Rock of the Gibraltarians - A History of Gibraltar. Rutherford 1987, p. 128.
  20. ↑ For a more detailed treatment of the siege, cf. William GF Jackson: The Rock of the Gibraltarians - A History of Gibraltar. Rutherford 1987, pp. 129-132.
  21. ^ William GF Jackson: The Rock of the Gibraltarians - A History of Gibraltar. Rutherford 1987, p. 129.
  22. ^ William GF Jackson: The Rock of the Gibraltarians - A History of Gibraltar. Rutherford 1987, p. 132.
  23. ↑ Max Immich: history of the European state system from 1660 to 1789. Munich / Berlin 1905 S. 263rd
  24. ^ Heinz Duchhardt: Balance of Power and Pentarchy - International Relations 1700–1785. Paderborn / Munich 1997, pp. 278f.
  25. ↑ Max Immich: history of the European state system from 1660 to 1789. Munich / Berlin 1905, p 264; Heinz Duchhardt: Balance of Power and Pentarchy - International Relations 1700–1785. Paderborn / Munich 1997, p. 279.
  26. ^ Heinz Duchhardt: Balance of Power and Pentarchy - International Relations 1700–1785. Paderborn / Munich 1997, p. 276f.
  27. ↑ Max Immich: history of the European state system from 1660 to 1789. Munich / Berlin 1905 S. 265th
  28. ^ Heinz Duchhardt: Balance of Power and Pentarchy - International Relations 1700–1785. Paderborn / Munich 1997, p. 281f.
  29. ^ William GF Jackson: The Rock of the Gibraltarians - A History of Gibraltar. Rutherford 1987, p. 127.
  30. ↑ Alfred T. Mahan: The Influence of Sea Power on History. Herford 1967, p. 98.
  31. ↑ On Walpole's policy in detail, cf. Jeremy Black: Walpole in Power. Stroud 2001.
  32. ^ David Marley: Wars of the Americas - A Chronology of Armed Conflict in the New World 1492 to the Present. Santa Barbara 1999, p. 383.
  33. ↑ See Richard Glover: Admiral Hosier's Ghost. On: www.traditionalmusic.co.uk (as of March 18, 2011).
This article was added to the list of excellent articles on April 13, 2011 in this version .