Occupation of Istanbul
| date | November 13, 1918 - October 4, 1923 |
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| place | Istanbul |
| Casus Belli | Division of the Ottoman Empire |
| output | Great Britain officially dissolved the Ottoman Parliament on March 16, 1920; it was restored by the Ankara government on September 9, 1922 . |
| Territorial changes | Istanbul is occupied by the United Kingdom , followed by the Triple Entente with Italy , then Turkish again |
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Land forces November 13, 1918 : 2,616 British , 540 French , 470 Italian (total: 3,626 soldiers) Land forces November 5, 1919 :: 27,419 soldiers (27 batteries , 160 machine guns ) : 19,069 soldiers (30 cannons , 91 machine guns) : 3,992 soldiers 795 soldiers (160 machine guns) Total: ~ 51,300 soldiers (411 machine guns, 57 artillery parts ) Marine forces:
13 November 1918: 50-61 warships
November 15, 1918: 167 warships + auxiliary ships |
1: XXV. Corps and the Constantinople Guard (October 6, 1919 - March 16, 1920) 2: Constantinople Command (December 10, 1922 - September 29, 1923) |
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The occupation of Istanbul ( Turkish İstanbul'un İşgali ) is counted from November 13, 1918 to October 4, 1923 and was carried out by the military forces of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , the French Republic and the Kingdom of Italy . It took place in the same context as the occupation of Izmir at the same time.
Background and development
The population of Istanbul in 1910 was only roughly estimated at between 800,000 and 1,200,000; the Ottomans collected the various population data from the respective religious bodies, the millets . The uncertainty in these population figures reflects the inaccuracy of the method, disagreements about the boundaries of the city and above all the countless population of war refugees, the muhajir from the Balkans. Less than half of the population was Muslim , the rest of the population was predominantly Greek Orthodox , Armenian, and Jewish . Before the war there was a sizeable population of Western Europe who called themselves Levantines but who were called Franks or Latins by the rest of the population .
In the course of the occupation, the Ottoman government set up military courts from 1919 to deal with the crimes of the genocide of the Armenians and the genocide of the Aramaeans . However, those were disbanded by the British military administration under pressure from the Turkish national movement .
After the armistice of Mudros , the military capitulation of the Ottoman Empire in World War I , the first French troops entered the city on November 12, 1918, followed by British troops the next day. The Italian troops landed in Galata on February 7, 1919. The occupation of the Ottoman capital, Istanbul , took place in two phases: The occupation was initially carried out from November 13, 1918 to March 16, 1920 in accordance with the armistice, which included the stationing of the armed forces provided. There was also a British-friendly party among the monarchist and liberal politicians of the Ottoman Empire, who wanted the traditional friendly relationship to continue and accused the fled elite of the Committee for Unity and Progress that the country was dependent on the German Empire and engaged in a hopeless war to have led. But after it became clear that the Allies were planning a colonial division of the Ottoman Empire and that they were no longer treating it as a sovereign state, the mood changed. In the newly elected Ottoman parliament, the nationalists again received an overwhelming majority. A formal occupation regime was therefore carried out from March 16, 1920. After the armistice of Mudanya of October 11, 1922, which brought Eastern Thrace back under Turkish control, the influence of the Turkish government in Ankara also grew in Istanbul, such as the abolition of the sultanate on November 1, 1922 for the exile of the Sultan by a British Warship led. The occupation of Istanbul was then ended by the provisions of the Treaty of Lausanne , which was signed on July 24, 1923. The last Allied troops left the city on October 4, 1923. The first Turkish troops marched into the city on October 6, 1923. Allied troops occupied the city of Istanbul according to their respective sections and in early December 1918 set up an Allied military administration or military administration under Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe . It was the first time the city had changed hands since the Turkish conquest in 1453 .
The military occupation, together with the Allied occupation of Smyrna, accelerated the establishment of the Turkish national movement and the subsequent Turkish War of Liberation under Mustafa Kemal Ataturk .
Allied High Commissioners
The list of Allied High Commissioners was as follows:
France:
- November 1918 - January 1919: Jean-François-Charles Amet
- January 1919 - March 30, 1919: Louis Félix Marie Franchet d'Esperey
- March 30, 1919 - December 1920: Albert Defrance (April 2, 1860 - January 25, 1936)
- 1921 - October 22, 1923: Maurice Pellé
Italy:
- November 1918 - January 1919: Carlo Sforza
- 1919: Romano Lodi Fé
- September 1920 - October 22, 1923: Eugenio Camillo Garroni
United Kingdom:
- October 31, 1918 - August 10, 1920: Somerset Gough-Calthorpe
- August 1919-1920: John de Robeck
- 1920-22 October 1923: Horace Rumbold
United States of America:
- November 30, 1918 - May 3, 1919: Lewis Heck
- May 3, 1919: Gabriel Bie Ravndal (* 1865 in Norway; † 1950)
- August 12, 1919 - August 10, 1920: Mark Lambert Bristol (* 1868; † 1939)
Kingdom of Greece:
- 1919 - 1921: Efthymios Kanellopoulos
- 1921 - July 15, 1922: Nikolaos Triantafyllakos
- July 15, 1922-1923: Charalambos Simopoulos (1874-1942)
literature
- Bilge Criss: Istanbul under allied occupation 1918-1923. Brill, Leiden 1999, ISBN 90-04-11259-6 (limited preview)
- Ferudun Ata: The Relocation Trials in Occupied Istanbul. Manzara Verlag, Offenbach am Main 2018, ISBN 9783939795926 .
- Bayram Akça: The Show Trial - The Nusret Beys case against the background of the resettlement of the Armenians in 1915, Manzara Verlag, Offenbach am Main 2018, ISBN 978-3-939795-86-5 .
Web links
Individual evidence
- ^ Constantinople occupied by British and Indian troops . British Pathé. October 30, 1918. Retrieved April 25, 2012.
- ↑ a b Missioni all'estero: 1918 - 1923. In Turchia: da Costantinopoli all'Anatolia. ( Italian ) Arma dei Carabinieri. Retrieved July 11, 2020.
- ↑ Hülya Toker Mütareke döneminde İstanbul Rumları , Genelkurmay Basımevi, 2006, ISBN 9754093555 , p. 29. ( Turkish )
- ↑ Zekeriya Türkmen, (2002), İstanbul'un İşgali ve İşgal Dönemindeki Uygulamalar (13 Kasım 1918-16 Mart 1920) , Ataturk Araştırma Merkezi Dergisi, XVIII (53): pages 338-339. ( Turkish )
- ^ Paul G. Halpern: The Mediterranean Fleet, 1919-1929 , Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2011, ISBN 1409427560 , p. 3 .
- ↑ Metin Ataç: İstiklal Harbi'nde Bahriyemiz , Genelkurmay Başkanlığı, 2003, ISBN 9754092397 , p. 20. ( Turkish )
- ↑ Mustafa Budak: İdealden gerçeğe: Misâk-ı Millî'den Lozan'a dış politika , Küre Yayınları, 2002, p. 21. ( Turkish )
- ↑ Ertan Eğribel, Ufuk Özcan: Türk sosyologları ve eserleri , Kitabevi, 2010, ISBN 6054208624 , p. 352. ( Turkish )
- ↑ TC Genelkurmay Harp Tarihi Başkanlığı Yayınları, Türk İstiklâl Harbine Katılan Tümen ve Daha Üst Kademlerdeki Komutanların Biyografileri , Genelkurmay Basım Evi, 1972, p. 51.
- ↑ TC Genelkurmay Harp Tarihi Başkanlığı Yayınları, Türk İstiklâl Harbine Katılan Tümen ve Daha Üst Kademlerdeki Komutanların Biyografileri , Genkurmay Başkanlığı Basımevi, Ankara, 1972, p. 118. ( Turkish )
- ↑ 6 Ekim İstanbul'un Kurtuluşu . Sözcü . October 6, 2017.
- ↑ Clarence Richard Johnson: Constantinople To-day; Or, The Pathfinder Survey of Constantinople; a Study in Oriental Social Life, Clarence Johnson, ed. (New York: Macmillian, 1922) pp. 164ff.
- ↑ Mustafa Kemal Pasha's speech on his arrival in Ankara in November 1919
- ↑ John Simopoulos was born on June 12 1923, when his father, Charalambos Simopoulos, was serving as High Commissioner for Greece in Constantinople. [1] Charalambos John Simopoulos (1874-1942)