Turkish Jews

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jew in the Ottoman Empire drawing around 1779

Turkish Jews are people of Jewish faith living in Turkey . In a broader sense, it means the Crimchaks , Khazars and Karaites .

The largest group among the Turkish Jews are the Sephardi from Spain and Portugal with approx. 96%. There are Ashkenazi in Turkey who come from Central and Eastern Europe, albeit in far fewer numbers, as well as descendants of Jews who lived in what is now Turkey in ancient times and the Byzantine times. About a hundred Karaites who do not recognize the rabbinical tradition live in Turkey.

Today around 17,000 to 18,000 Jews live in Turkey (as of 2016), before 2010 it was 26,000, and before Israel was founded in 1948 it was 120,000. Jews living in Turkey enjoy minority rights as defined in the Treaty of Lausanne on July 24, 1923.

history

In the ancient

Flagship that Bayezid II sent to rescue the Jews from Spain

According to the Internet presence of the Turkish-Jewish community, Judaism in the Turkish Aegean can be up to the 4th century BC, in Sardis up to 220 BC. To be traced back. The historian Flavius ​​Josephus reports that Aristotle got to know Jews on his travels through Asia Minor and exchanged ideas with them. The synagogue of Sardis dates from the sixth century . It is a large, richly appointed structure, which suggests an extensive community.

Ottoman Empire

In the 15th century, Jews in Spain faced the alternative of converting to Christianity or of leaving the country. On July 31, 1492, due to the Alhambra Edict , signed by Ferdinand II and Isabella I of Castile , between 120,000 and 150,000 Jews were expelled from Spain, who had to give their gold and other jewelry and money to the Catholic government. The majority of them - around 100,000 - fled to Portugal, from where they were also expelled in 1496/97. The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire Bayezid II had a decree published in which the Jews were welcomed. As a result, a large number of Spanish and Portuguese Jews emigrated to the Ottoman Empire. The term used in the decree is: Sürgün that means, similar to the Hebrew Galut, exile or resettlement, but also ban.

The name Sephardim comes from the Hebrew and means: "Those who come from Sepharad (i.e. the Iberian Peninsula)". The Sephardic immigrants established the printing press on Turkish soil. They also served in the Ottoman army as advisers and since 1909 as regular soldiers, as ministers and also as doctors at the court of the sultans. Their trade relations served the good of all. The religious freedom granted brought to light many famous rabbis who commented on the Old Testament. The Hahambaşı in Istanbul had been the ethnarch of the Jewish community in the Ottoman Empire since the 15th century .

Since Sultan Orhan I in the 14th century, Jews in the Ottoman Empire were allowed to acquire real estate freely under a special tax ( Khanadji ). In Constantinople there were 44 synagogues as early as the 16th century. According to the Jewish archive, it was possible to live much more freely and better in the Ottoman Empire compared to the West. Rabbi Isaak Zarfati sent a circular in Hebrew to all German-speaking Jewish communities in 1470, in which he asked them to settle in the Ottoman Empire.

Trade flag of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire

In 1648 part of the Turkish Jews split off and joined the self-proclaimed Messiah Shabbtai Zvi . A large part of the descendants of this group today belong to the Muslim faith and are sometimes referred to as Dönme . A small part still lives today according to the rules of Shabbtai Zvis.

The history of the Jews in Turkey was not always positive. For example, the Sultan Murad III. a law to kill all Jews in the empire. However, this law did not come into force. Further harassment was a law from 1702 that ordered Jews to wear yellow slippers and that they only wear black leather shawls. In 1728, the Jews who lived next to the Valide Mosque had to sell their houses to Muslims.

It was not until the 19th century that Jews were formally legally equated with Muslims.

During the Turkish Liberation War , the Jews were persecuted by both the Greeks and the Turks. The Greeks pillaged Jewish communities in Manisa and Turgutlu . The Turkish forces also took action against the Jews. After the end of the war of liberation, the Jewish communities of Manisa, Aydın , Denizli , Nazilli , Tire , Kasaba and Milas were destroyed and abandoned.

Establishment of the republic

Or Ahayim Jewish Hospital in the
Fatih district of Istanbul May 20, 2009

After the establishment of the republic, under the Treaty of Lausanne, Jews were a recognized minority in Turkey alongside the Greeks and Armenians as non-Muslims. However, Turkey expected the minorities to reject their rights as minorities. The Jewish community announced publicly on September 15, 1925 that they were rejecting the rights guaranteed to them in Article 42 of the Lausanne Treaty. Furthermore, the Jews were encouraged to speak Turkish instead of Ladino .

At the same time as the separation of state and religion in the Turkish state, the Jewish community also experienced a change from a religious community to Turkish Jews , then to Jewish Turks and finally to Turks of the Mosaic faith .

In June and July 1934, however, pogroms took place against the Jews of Eastern Thrace, the aim of which was the complete Turkishization of the European part of Turkey. These events are also known as the Thrace Pogrom . According to Sule Toktas, it is assumed that half of the Jews previously living in Thrace emigrated to Istanbul. Those who stayed had to sell their property cheaply. After the pogrom , the mayors and governors, whose authority could have prevented the pogrom, were ousted by the national government.

In 1942, a wealth tax ( Varlık Vergisi ) was introduced for non-Muslims, which was applied extremely rigorously and drove some of those affected into poverty. As a result of this reprisal, but especially after the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, up to 30,000 Jews emigrated abroad.

In August 2011, the Turkish Prime Minister Erdoğan decided by decree to return property and sacred buildings confiscated to Jews in the past.

holocaust

Although the Turkish Republic forbade foreign Jews to issue visas before the Second World War, this decree was circumvented by some Turkish diplomats by granting many Jews Turkish citizenship and thus saving them from the concentration camps. For example, the central Holocaust -Gedenkstätte Yad Vashem in Israel the then Turkish consul in Rhodes, Selahattin Ülkümen , the honorary title of Righteous Among the Nations award because he at that time to the Jews of Greek today Rhodes ( Italian Aegean Islands had heard) had helped escape at the risk of his life. The Consul General of Turkey in Marseille, Behiç Erkin , issued Turkish papers for 18,000 Jews, mostly of Ottoman descent, and thus saved them from the Holocaust.

Due to the general entry ban and British pressure, the ship Struma with 769 Jewish refugees from Romania was refused to land on Turkish soil at the beginning of 1942 . It sank shortly afterwards in the Black Sea, after torpedo fire by the Soviet submarine Shch-213 , there was only one survivor. From the end of 1942 Istanbul was the seat of the organization "Vaad Ha-Hatzalah" of the Jewish Agency , which had the task of helping as many Jews as possible from Europe to flee to Palestine through legal and semi-legal channels.

Jews of Turkish nationality were also murdered in the Holocaust. 1,282 of the 67,488 people who were sent from the Drancy assembly camp to the various concentration camps were Turkish citizens.

On September 16, 2005, a memorial plaque was installed in the Dachau concentration camp for the Turkish citizens persecuted by National Socialist Germany .

After the Second World War

In the 1955 pogrom of Istanbul there were attacks in which Jews were also targeted in addition to Greeks and Armenians .

On November 15, 2003, Al-Qaeda carried out a suicide attack on two synagogues, killing 24 and more than 300 injuries. One of the destinations was the Beit Israel Synagogue in the Sisli district. The other was the Neve Shalom Synagogue in Istanbul, which was the target of attacks on September 6, 1986 and March 1, 1992. In the attack on September 6, 1986, 22 worshipers were murdered.

anti-Semitism

The anti-Semitism in Turkey was only a marginal phenomenon since the Ottoman period. So far, the Turkish public has drawn a mostly Jew-friendly image of itself. According to Robert Schild, an author of the Jewish-Turkish newspaper Şalom , Turkey has never been an anti-Semitic country. However, in recent times anti-Semitism has spread more and more in Islamist and nationalist milieus. It is said that anti-Semitic publications such as the Protocols of the Elders of Zion and Mein Kampf are enjoying a boom in some circles . Lately it has been observed that anti-Semitic currents are slowly entering the mainstream. Examples of this could be the anti-Semitic box office hit Valley of the Wolves and the anti-Semitic television series Sarah's Blue Eyes . Until 2006 there was no debate on rising anti-Semitism in Turkey with the exception of newspaper articles in the socialist magazine Birikim and in the liberal daily Radikal . According to the Jewish Archives, the displacement of Jews in the Turkish military and bureaucracy has an anti-Semitic character.

The Turkish movement Necmettin Erbakans Millî Görüş and its parties, the Welfare Party and the Party of Happiness, are anti-Semitic according to the assessment of the Bavarian Ministry of the Interior and the German Office for the Protection of the Constitution. The daily Millî Gazete also advocates anti-Semitic theses in its articles. Furthermore, the Turkish Gray Wolf Movement ( Bozkurtlar ) and its Party of the Nationalist Movement (MHP) are classified as anti-Semitic by the German Office for the Protection of the Constitution.

In the Thrace pogrom in 1934 and in the Istanbul pogrom in 1955, there were attacks in which Jews were also targeted in addition to Greeks and Armenians . On November 15, 2003, Al-Qaeda carried out a suicide attack on two synagogues; one of them was the Neve Shalom synagogue in Istanbul, which was the subject of an attack in 1986. This attack was the first al-Qaeda attack in Turkey. Mainly Muslim passers-by were killed in the street.

According to the news magazine Der Spiegel , Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan wrote a play called Mas-Kom-Yah in 1975 , which the article describes as an anti-Semitic play.

Cultural life

The center of Judaism in Turkey is Istanbul . There is a Jewish weekly newspaper there called Şalom (with an Internet presence ). In addition to the many synagogues in Istanbul, there is the Or-Ahayim Hospital in Balat and two old people's homes that belong to the community. In Ulus , Istanbul, there has been a Jewish school since 1914, which includes an elementary school, a middle school and a high school. There is also a Jewish bookshop and a Jewish museum in Istanbul. The second largest center of the Jews in Turkey is Izmir . Smaller groups live in Adana , Ankara (where the old synagogue exists), Antakya , Bursa , Çanakkale , İskenderun and Kırklareli .

The Turkish-Jewish music group Sefarad has been in the Turkish top ten several times and has already taken first places with their Turkish and Ladino-language music. The group is an important cultural institution for the Jewish community, as it has revived almost forgotten Jewish songs with the Ladino language, which is almost only spoken by older people.

Kosher Jewish cuisine can also be found in Istanbul in Beyoğlu and in the old Stambul, in fine forms e.g. B. in the restaurant of the Hotel Merit Antique.

The institution of the Hahambaşı

The institution of Hahambaşı was created in 1452 by Sultan Mehmed II. The aim was to rule the ethnically and culturally very different subjects as far as possible according to their own laws. Since religion was seen as an important foundation of the identity of the various communities, their religious leaders were also referred to as ethnarchs . In addition to the Hahambaşı, this also applies to the Christian Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and the Grand Mufti , the highest Islamic legal scholar in the Ottoman Empire. The latter held the rank of minister.

The first Hahambaşı, Moses Capsali , was allowed to take part in the State Council as head of the Jews in Turkey under Sultan Mehmed II.

Due to the size and geographical location of the empire, which included not only Palestine, the historical homeland of the Jews, but also more diaspora communities than any other country, the Hahambaşı was also compared to the Exilarchen , the leader of the Jews during the Babylonian exile and later Persian Empire .

During the Ottoman Empire, the Hahambaşı had extensive legislative and judicial powers over the members of their community and had direct access to the Sultan. After the expulsion of the Jews from Spain (1492) at the latest, the incumbents also had considerable influence outside the Ottoman Empire. The chief rabbis of today's secular Turkish Republic also bear the title of Hahambaşı.

Synagogues in Istanbul

The Etz Ayahim Synagogue in Istanbul, Ortaköy
Ashkenazi Synagogue

The Zülfaris Synagogue, dating from 1671, was converted into the Jewish Museum of Turkey in 2001 after it was abandoned as a synagogue in 1985 .

European side of the Bosphorus - north of the Golden Horn

South of the Golden Horn

  • Ahrida Synagogue, Balat, is the oldest of Istanbul's synagogues and was built in the early 15th century.
  • Yanbol Synagogue, Balat
  • Bet Avraam Synagogue, Sirkeci
  • Kal Kados Çorapçi Han Synagogue
  • Bakırköy Synagogue
  • Karahim Sinagogu, Kenesa of the Karaites

Asian side of the Bosphorus

  • Shirtat Israel Synagogue, Haydarpaşa
  • Bet Yaakov Synagogue, Kuzguncuk
  • Bet Nissim Synagogue, Kuzguncuk
  • Caddebostan Synagogue

Prince Islands

  • Hesed Le Avraam Synagogue, Buyukada
  • Bet Yaakov Synagogue, Heybeliada
  • Burgazada Synagogue

Cemeteries in Istanbul

I. From Byzantine times

I a. No longer received

  • Between the city gates Edirnekapı and Eğrikapı in front of the city walls
  • Kasımpaşa

I b. Receive

  • Ortakoy

II. From the Ottoman period

  • Hasköy, the largest cemetery in the city, was created in 1583 to replace that of Kasımpaşa. - Adjacent is the Karaite cemetery.
  • İcadiye, above Kuzguncuk, the second largest cemetery in the city, was built in the 16th century.
  • Bağlarbaşı, above Üsküdar, was built before 1712.

III. 19./20. century

  • İtaliyan Musevi Mezarlığı, Şişli: 1867.
  • Ulus Mahallesi: 1919 Ashkenazi, 1920 Sephardic cemetery.
  • Kilyos (on the Black Sea): unsuccessful attempt to establish a new company in 1990/94.

(Source below)

Known Turkish Jews

Diaspora

Israel

There are several associations in Israel that were founded by Turkish Jews. The most important is the association of the Israelis of Turkish origin (he: Hitahdut Yotsey Turkia , tr: Türkiyeliler Birliği ). The Israelis of Turkish descent planted a forest near Haifa and named it after Ataturk.

There are also kibbutzim founded by Turkish Jews, such as the haGoschrim , founded in 1948 by 33 young people in the Hule plain , a few kilometers east of Kirjat Schmona at the foot of the Golan .

According to the Israel Statistical Institute, 70,407 Turkish Jews immigrated to Israel. In 2001, 80,400 Israelis felt they were of Turkish origin.

Austria

(See → Vienna Sephardim )

Up until the November pogroms in 1938 there was a Turkish-Israelite community and synagogue in Vienna called the Turkish Temple .

See also

literature

  • Adolf von Zemlinszky : History of the Turkish-Israelite community in Vienna. Publisher by M. Papo, Vienna 1888. sammlungen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de
  • Mark A. Epstein: The Ottoman Jewish Communities and their Role in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. Schwarz, Freiburg im Breisgau 1980, ISBN 3-87997-077-7 (= Islamic Studies , Volume 56, also dissertation at the University of Washington 1979, English).
  • Benjamin Braude (Ed.): Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire. The functioning of a plural society. Holmes and Meier, New York 1982. (English)
  1. The central lands. ISBN 0-8419-0519-3 .
  2. The Arabic speaking lands. ISBN 0-8419-0520-7 .
  • Albert E. Kalderon: Abraham Galante. A biography. Sepher Hermon Press, New York 1983, ISBN 0-87203-111-X (English).
  • Bernard Lewis : The Jews of Islam . Princeton University Press, Princeton N.J. 1984, ISBN 0-691-00807-8 . (English)
  • Abraham Galante: Histoire des Juifs de Turquie. Edition Isis, Istanbul 1987. (9 volumes, French)
  • Esther Benbassa : Un Grand Rabbin Sépharade en Politique. 1892-1923. CNRS, Paris 1990. (French)
  • Esther Juhasz: Sephardi Jews in the Ottoman Empire. Aspects of Material Culture. Israel Museum, Jerusalem 1990, ISBN 965-278-065-0 (English).
  • Esther Benbassa: Une Diaspora Sépharade en Transition Istanbul XIXe-XXe Siecles. Les Editions du Cerf, Paris 1993, ISBN 2-204-04668-X . (French)
  • Jane S. Gerber: The Jews of Spain. A History of the Sephardic Experience. The Free Press, New York 1994, ISBN 0-02-911574-4 . (English)
  • Abraham Galante: The Turks and the Jews. (Turkler ve Yahudiler). Gözlem, Istanbul 1995, ISBN 975-7304-16-6 .
  • Ilan Karmi: The Jewish Community of Istanbul in the Nineteenth Century. Social, Legal and Administrative Transformations. Edition Isis, Istanbul 1996, ISBN 975-428-085-1 . (English)
  • Haim Ze'ev Hirschberg: Hakham Bashi. In: Cecil Roth (Ed.): Encyclopedia Judaica . Brill, Leiden 1997, ISBN 965-07-0665-8 . (English, CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0).
  • Erol Haker: Once upon a time Jews lived in Kirklareli. The Story of the Adato Family 1800-1934. Edition Isis, Istanbul 2003, ISBN 975-428-239-0 . (English)
  • Roni Margulies : Bugün Pazar, Yahudiler azar. Memories. Kanat Kitap, Istanbul 2007, ISBN 978-975-8859-52-8 . (Turkish)
  • Corry Guttstadt: Turkey, the Jews and the Holocaust. Association A, Berlin 2008, ISBN 978-3-935936-49-1 .
  • Hayalet Evler: Türk-Yahudi Mimarisinden Örnekler. Beyaz Arif Akbas, Ekim 2012, YGY, ISBN 978-1-4802-0650-2 . (Turkish)

Web links

Commons : Turkish Jews  - Collection of Pictures, Videos and Audio Files

Individual evidence

  1. The Karaites of Turkic origin on their history . ( Memento of the original from November 26, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (Turkish, English) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.turkiye.net
  2. a b c d e f g Turkish Jewish Archive website on the history of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire and Turkey. on juedisches-archiv-chfrank.de
  3. a b c Turkey Virtual Jewish History Tour . Jewish Virtual Library. Retrieved October 9, 2016.
  4. Why Jews in Terror-Stricken Turkey Aren't Fleeing to Israel Yet . hairetz.com. Retrieved October 9, 2016.
  5. musevicemaati.com Official website of the Turkish Jews Turkish Jews Today: The present size of Jewish Community is estimated at around 26,000. ( Memento of the original from October 20, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (Turkish, English) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.musevicemaati.com
  6. ^ Website of the Jewish Rabbinate Turkey: Information on the community and history of the Jews in Turkey ( Memento from October 7, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) (English, Turkish)
  7. Flavius ​​Josephus: Jewish antiquities. 1st book, chapter
  8. a b Website of the German-language Turkish newspaper Yeni Vatan: Article about the Turkish Jews ( Memento of the original from October 7, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.yenivatan.com
  9. Turkish daily newspaper Hürriyet: Article from April 2, 2001 on the subject of Shabbetaj Zvi (Turkish)
  10. Berna Pekesen: Nationalism, Turkishization and the end of the Jewish communities in Thrace . R.Oldenbourg Verlag, Munich 2012, ISBN 978-3-486-70715-1 , p. 142 .
  11. Sule Toktas: Citizenship and Minorities: A Historical Overview of Turkey's Jewish Minority . In: Journal of Historical Sociology . tape 18 , no. 4 , ISSN  0952-1909 ( academia.edu [accessed September 11, 2018]).
  12. Berna Pekesen: Nationalism, Turkishization and the end of the Jewish communities in Thrace . R. Oldenbourg Verlag, Munich 2012, ISBN 978-3-486-70715-1 , p. 372 .
  13. Sule Toktas: Citizenship and Minorities: A Historical Overview of Turkey's Jewish Minority . In: Journal of Historical Sociology . tape 18 , no. 4 , ISSN  0952-1909 , p. 400 ( academia.edu [accessed September 11, 2018]).
  14. a b Rıfat N. Bali : Les Relations entre Turcs et Juifs dans La Turquie Moderne. Isis, Istanbul 2001.
  15. a b Sule Toktas: Citizenship and Minorities: A Historical Overview of Turkey's Jewish Minority . In: Journal of Historical Sociology . tape 18 , no. 4 , ISSN  0952-1909 , p. 402 ( academia.edu [accessed September 11, 2018]).
  16. Faik Ökte: The tragedy of the Turkish Capital Tax. Kent 1987.
  17. Turkey returns property to minorities ( memento of February 13, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) on Tagesschau de, August 30, 2011. Accessed August 30, 2011.
  18. Turkish Daily News: Turkish Daily News with information about Behiç Erkin as a person and about a planned Hollywood film on the subject ( memento of the original from September 30, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (English) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.turkishdailynews.com.tr
  19. Emir Kivircik, Büyükelçi (de: Ambassador), Goa, ISBN 978-9944-29-102-6 (Turkish)
  20. ^ Turkish Jewish friendship website on the history of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire and Turkey. science.co.il (English)
  21. ^ Evyatar Friesel: Atlas of Modern Jewish History. Jerusalem (Carta) 1990, 110 with map 124.
  22. ^ Yeni Vatan (New Home) : 50-Years-After-Auschwitz. ( Memento of the original from November 15, 2006 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. About the Holocaust and Turkish Jewish victims. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.yenivatan.com
  23. ^ Greetings from Bavarian State Minister Siegfrid Schneider on the occasion of the installation of a memorial plaque for the persecuted Turkish citizens: About the Holocaust and Turkish Jewish victims  ( page no longer available , search in web archivesInfo: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / www.km.bayern.de  
  24. ^ A b Thomas Seibert: Tricky Anniversary for Ankara . Der Tagesspiegel , February 7, 2005.
  25. ^ Süddeutsche Zeitung, November 16, 2003
  26. ^ The German daily newspaper Taz on the recent anti-Semitism in Turkey . In: Die Tageszeitung (taz), May 2, 2006
  27. Press release on the movement of Erbakan's Bavarian Ministry of the Interior
  28. ^ Protection of the Constitution: Information on Milli Görüş . ( Memento of the original from May 29, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.im.nrw.de
  29. Protection of the Constitution NRW. ( Memento of November 30, 2004 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF)
  30. Information and photographs on the terrorist attack on the Neve Shalom synagogue. ( Memento of the original from April 17, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. mimetic.com (English) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.mimetic.com
  31. Article on the terrorist attack on the synagogues. In: Die Zeit , No. 48/2003
  32. Personal details : Recep Tayyip Erdogan . In: Der Spiegel . No. 19 , 2012 ( online ).
  33. Information about the school and its history. Jewish School Istanbul (Turkish)
  34. gozlemkitap.com Jewish bookstore Gözlem Kitap (Turkish)
  35. muze500.com Jewish Museum (Turkish, English)
  36. ^ Group website. Turkish-Jewish music group Sefarad (Turkish)
  37. Ahrida Synagogue. ( Memento of the original from February 7, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Turkishjews.com (English) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.turkishjews.com
  38. A. Galante: Histoire des juifs d'Istanbul. 1941-42. Mina Rosen: Jewish Cemeteries in Turkey. In: Ester Juhasz (ed.): Sephardi Jews in the Ottoman Empire. Aspects of Material Culture. Jerusalem 1989, pp. 60-63.
  39. Turkish daily newspaper Hürriyet: Article about Erdoğan's visit to the USA ( Memento of the original from October 7, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , October 20, 2007. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.hurriyetusa.com
  40. ^ Website of the Turkish Israelis. ( Memento of the original of July 6, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Hitahdut Yotsey Turkia (Turkish, Hebrew, English, Ladino, French) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / turkisrael.org
  41. Hitahdut Yotsey Turkia Newspaper Official newspaper of the Turkish Israelis (Turkish)
  42. Hitahdut Yotsey Turkia Zeitung article on the situation and history of the Turkish Israelis (Turkish)
  43. Website of the Turkish cultural community Austria: Information on the Viennese-Turkish-Israelite community ( memento of the original from July 17, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.turkischegemeinde.at