Crimeanchaks

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Crimean Rabbi Chaim Chesekiahu Medini with family in the 1890s

The Krimchaks (also known as Crimean Jews ; Crimean Кърымчах / Qrımçah , plural: Кърымчахлар / Qrımçahlar ) are a Turkic-speaking minority of the Jewish faith based in Crimea ( Ukraine ) , whose Crimean language is considered almost extinct. In contrast to the Karaites who also predominantly live in the Crimea, they traditionally belong to the Talmudic majority of the Jewish religion, rabbinic Judaism .

Language and self-designation

Crimean tombstone in Bilohirsk (flipped)

Their traditional colloquial language is Crimean Tatar , which is close to Crimean Tatar , which, like all Jewish languages, contains numerous Hebrew and Judeo-Aramaic loanwords and was traditionally written in Hebrew script . Many linguists see Crimchak today as the Jewish ethnolect of Crimean Tatar, which was also called Kipchak until modern times . The self-names "Krimtschaken" and "Krimtschakische Sprache" arose only in the 19th century through a combination of " Crimea " and "Kipchak". Before the language was sometimes called "Djagataisch" or "Tschagataisch", but should not be confused with the Eastern Turkish language Tschagataisch ; Due to the similarity of many Turkic languages, there were often imprecise names in the past. The name came about because the written language Chagataisch, which was established in Central Asia, was also the written and standard language in Crimea until the beginning of the 19th century and its name was also transferred to the different spoken dialects and language forms. After the Second World War, this outdated designation was temporarily reused when, with the complete deportation of all Crimean Tatars in 1944 and shortly thereafter of all traditional ethnic groups with vernaculars close to Crimean Tatar to Central Asia, it became dangerous to indicate a native language close to Crimean Tatar. Because many survivors of the Holocaust switched to Russian, Ukrainian or other everyday languages ​​after the Second World War, only a few people still have a complete command of Crimean Chak.As early as the 1970 census in Crimea, only 71 people gave it, not Russian, Ukrainian or Yiddish to use as mother tongue (i.e. mostly Crimean chakish).

Before the self-designation "Krimtschaken" and the language name "Krimtschakisch" became established in the 19th century, people did not use their language to describe themselves ethnically, but simply called themselves Jehudiler / çufutlar (both means "Jews") or srel balaları / bnei Israel (= Children of Israel).

Differentiation from other Crimean Jewish groups

The synagogue of Bilohirsk (then Karasubasar), described as the “Crimean Jewish Synagogue”, destroyed during the Second World War under German Nazi occupation.
Folk dance at the 2012 Crimean Culture Festival in Evpatoria

The Krimchaks are not to be confused with the likewise Jewish and Turkic speaking Karaims (Karaites). Karaites are members of an opposition movement in Judaism that rejects the interpretation of the Jewish commandments with the Talmud . In the Middle Ages they existed in all of Oriental Judaism, but since the 16th century almost only in the Crimea, where they also use a colloquial language close to Crimean Tatar, Karaim , which some Karaim who emigrated from Crimea to Eastern Europe continue to speak. They differ from the Talmudic-rabbinic Crimeanchaks in their different interpretation of the commandments and customs and are organized in completely different, traditionally clearly delimited communities.

The Crimchaks differ from other ethnic Jewish groups , which also belong to the Talmudic-rabbinical tendency, in their Crimean colloquial language and some cultural differences, for example traditional dishes on Jewish feast days or detailed differences in the practical observance of Jewish dietary laws , which is why they are often in separate communities are organized with their own houses of prayer ( synagogues ). There was also a separate “Crimean rite” (10th century) for worship services in the 16th and 17th centuries. Century supplemented by Uncommitted Customs ( minhag ), called minhag Kaffa after the city of Kaffa , which are now almost no longer practiced. The distinction also existed in the Crimea, which belonged to the Jewish Paleon of Settlement in the Russian Empire , which is why even more Ashkenazim (originally Yiddish-speaking Jews), some as rural settlers, settled in the now irrigated northern "Steppe Crimea" in the 18th and 19th centuries founded their own churches. The various communities of rabbinic Judaism recognize each other as legitimate forms of Judaism. Traditionally, this mutual recognition did not exist between rabbinic and Karaean Judaism. Karean houses of prayer are known as kenessa .

The everyday cultural traditions of krymchaks (as well as Krimkaraimen), such as folk music, dances, costumes, etc., are similar through the centuries of coexistence which the Muslim Crimean Tatars and other long-established ethnic groups, often also Crimean ethnolects speak ( Krimarmenier , Krimgriechen). Ashkenazi folklore, on the other hand, was shaped more in Central and Eastern Europe.

Population and settlement area

Jewish groups in Crimea in 1926 in%
Crimeanchaks
Karaites
Ashkenazim

Among the Jewish ethnic groups, the Crimchaks are a smaller group. At the time of their greatest population before the Second World War there were over 8,000 Crimeanchaks worldwide in the 1939 Soviet census (according to some data also 9,500–10,000), of which over 6,500 in the Crimea, less than 1,000 in other Soviet areas, mainly in the cities of central Ukraine, and a few hundred abroad, mostly in Palestine and the United States. The largest parishes were in Karasubasar ( Bilohirsk ), Simferopol , Kerch , Feodosia , Evpatoria and Sevastopol . There were a similar number of Karaites in the Crimea and now significantly more Ashkenazim (see adjacent maps with percentage of the population in the cities and districts of Crimea after the 1926 census).

The German occupation during the Second World War brought the catastrophe of the Holocaust to the Krimchaks as well . Over 6,000 Krimchaks (70–80% of their total number), almost 6,000 of them in the Crimea itself, were murdered at the end of 1941 / beginning of 1942 by Einsatzgruppe D of the Security Police and SD and participating Wehrmacht units. Important scenes of the genocide were the Simferopol massacre and the Feodosia massacre . Only around 700–750 managed to survive the genocide in the Crimea, partly by fleeing via Kerch in the direction of Novorossiysk , and over 1,000 others as soldiers at the front or in other areas. Since then, the Crimean Chaks have been considered a vulnerable community and in 2004 December 11, the anniversary of the Simferopol massacre, was declared a memorial day for the murdered Jewish neighbors of all three communities in the Autonomous Republic of Crimea .

A smaller part of the survivors came in May / June 1944 in the ethnic criminal deportation of all Crimean Tatars, Krimarmenier, Krimgriechen, Krimbulgaren and Krimitaliener for alleged collaboration with the Germans. Although the krymchaks and Karaites were not mentioned in the deportation decrees, but because they used the same vernacular, or because of family connections, some were from the NKVD deported to Central Asia in 1989 lived in the Uzbek SSR 173 krymchaks, in neighboring Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan about twice as many, mostly deported.

The 1959 census found 2,000 Crimean chaks in the entire Soviet Union; due to immigration to Israel in 1989, it was 1,448, of which around 1,000 were in Crimea. According to the 2002 census in Ukraine, only 204 Crimchaks lived in Crimea at that time, approx. 200 in the rest of Ukraine, approx. 200 live in Russia , mostly on the Russian Black Sea coast, from Abkhazia , where 152 Crimchaks were counted in 1926 most of them emigrated in the Abkhazian War. According to unconfirmed estimates, about 600–700 live in Israel , there is a Crimean synagogue in Tel Aviv , a few hundred also in the USA , mainly in Brooklyn / New York, where there is a Crimean synagogue on Saratoga Avenue, and a few hundred in other countries.

origin

The assumption of a possible origin of the Crimchaks from the Khazars of the Middle Ages is not shared by the majority of researchers. It is preferred to assume that the Crimean Tatars are descendants of Crimean Tatars who have converted to Judaism , or Jews with Tatar language who either lived in the Crimea before the time of the Tatar Crimean Khanate , or immigrated during this time, but adopted the Tatar slang. The formation of a Jewish community with Jewish-Kipchak / Crimean Tatar colloquial language can only have occurred since the late Middle Ages, especially in the Crimean Khanate, because previously Italian and Greek were the dominant languages ​​of the southern peninsula. Presumably, Genoese- Italian elements also played a role in their history. Some of the Crimean family names are of Italian and Spanish origin (Abraben, Piastro, Lombrozo, Trevgoda), Turkish / Oriental origin (Mizrachi, Stamboli, Izmirli, Tokatly, Bakschi, e.g. Ralph Bakshi ), Eastern European Ashkenazi origin (Berman , Gutman, Aschkenazi, Warschawski, Lechno, Gotha, Weinberg) or Georgian origin (Gurdschi = "Georgian" and some Georgian surnames in -schwili). Historical sources also state that it was in the 15th – 16th centuries. In the 19th century there was an immigration of Georgian Jews who fled the increasingly oppressive serfdom in the Georgian principalities. This contradicts older hypotheses of an exclusive origin from Turkish-speaking converts.

history

Bosporan period

Fragment of a Hebrew inscription in Chersonese

The first evidence of the presence of a Jewish minority in the Greek cities of the Bosporan Empire are gravestones and release certificates for slaves by Jewish owners from the first century AD, especially in the cities of south-eastern Crimea and the Taman Peninsula, where they may have settled earlier. It has been repeatedly documented that these freed persons and those willing to convert who visited the synagogues converted to the Jewish religion and were accepted into the communities. This so-called “ proselyte movement ” played an important role in the formation of the diaspora communities not only in the Crimea, but also throughout ancient and early medieval Jewish history. Inscriptions and funerary inscriptions by Jewish residents indicate that they apparently belonged to all urban classes - military, civil servants, craftsmen and traders - and merged more Hellenized with less Hellenized groups.

Historical sources mention the minority for the first time in connection with an uprising by non-Christian population groups around 300 in the city of Chersonesos against the violent Christianization and the church father Hieronymus describes the regional Jews in the 4th – 5th centuries. Century, whereby he reproduces their origin legend, they are descendants of deportees of the Babylonian exile and captured warriors of the Bar Kochba uprising .

With the invasions of the Huns , Alans and Goths in the Crimea, some customs of the Jewish and non-Jewish population were mixed, such as the form of the grave inscriptions, but also after the conquest of the (southern) remains of the Bosporan Empire by the Byzantine Empire, there is a Jewish presence through Theophanes and Inscriptions on the Taman Peninsula in the 7th – 8th centuries. Century attested.

Khazarian period

In the middle of the 7th century, Turkic-speaking Khazars conquered northern parts of the Crimea as far as the settlement areas of the Crimean Goths in the northern Crimean Mountains, and in the middle of the 8th century a stable border with the southern Byzantine possessions was formed. Possibly the Crimean Jews played an important role in the known conversion of parts of the Khazar upper class and perhaps parts of the Khazarian population to the Jewish religion. After archaeologically researched continuities in the mountain towns of the Crimean Mountains, Crimean Goths also apparently converted to the Jewish religion.

The Crimean Jewish population also increased due to waves of flight from persecution in the Byzantine Empire (848, 873–874, 932–39, 943). From the 10th to 11th In the 19th century, the first religious hymns of the Crimean Jews are known. Sources of this time (Hamadani, Chisdai ibn Schaprut ) report of Jewish communities in many cities in the Crimea and the Taman Peninsula, of which Tmutarakan , Mangup , Sudak even had Jewish majorities; the southeastern coast became Khazars after a war against Byzantium in 941 controlled. With the fall of the Khazar Empire from 965 onwards, the southern coast fell completely back to Byzantium, and despite being driven out of Kherson, many Jews remained in southern Crimea, who gradually became part of the Greek-speaking Jewish group of Romaniots .

Some of the Jewish converted Khazars may have merged into the then large Crimean Jewish community, but that is difficult to prove. The German-Jewish traveler Petachja from Regensburg reported for the first time in the 12th century that in the Crimea, possibly for a long time, large rabbinical and Karean communities existed side by side. Older hypotheses that the Crimean Karaim wanted to associate with the Khazars, but not the Crimchaks, are not tenable because in many oriental-Jewish communities of the time and among Khazars, Karaean and rabbinical currents coexisted.

Tatar period

The Crimea in the middle of the 15th century
  • Principality of Theodoro
  • Genoese colonies
  • Khanate of Crimea

    • From 1239 the northern Crimean steppe belonged to the Tatar Golden Horde , in the south many sea trade towns fell to the Genoese , in the south west the independent Christian-Orthodox principality Theodoro was established , the last two existed until 1475. The trading towns in the south attracted many Italian and European, Christian ones and Jewish, but also oriental-Jewish merchants. The communities were relatively prosperous at the time, because the Crimea became a hub of long-distance trade from Eastern and Southern Europe to the Middle East, Central Asia, India and China (network of the Silk Road ), the largest communities were in the Tatar-ruled Staryj Krym (then Solhat , mostly Crimean chaks who later moved to Karasubasar), in Çufut Qale and Mangup Qale, then Theodoro, (mostly Karaites) and in the Genoese trading city of Sudak (both currents). The prosperity corresponded to the first known religious-literary works, such as a Torah commentary by the rabbi Abraham Qirimi from Qirim / Staryj Krym (1358), which he wrote at the suggestion of the Karaite Chisikjahu ben Elchanan, which suggests that the relationships between rabbinical and Karaic people Jews were good then. The Genoese authorities were able to prevent late medieval tensions between the religious communities with a Charter 1449, which guaranteed all religious communities freedom of religion and security of their property and protection against forced conversions.

    After the conquest of Theodoros by the Crimean khanate in 1449 and the Genoese trading cities in the south by the Ottomans , especially in the heyday at the end of the 15th century, Jews in high political positions are known, such as the long-standing envoy of the Crimean khanate in Moscow, Hosia Kokos and Prince Zacharia von Taman . The property and safety of the communities and merchants were guaranteed by traditional letters of protection ( yarlık ) from the Crimean Khan. During this time the Jewish and Christian Crimean peoples approached the Muslim Crimean Tatars culturally and linguistically. Since the 16th century, however, the importance of Crimea as a center of long-distance trade decreased due to the great overseas discoveries of the Europeans and the separation of the Ottoman market from the European one. There remained an Ottoman Black Sea trade, in which merchants of all religions were active, and trade with Eastern Europe, which was mostly in Armenian hands. Therefore, the importance of handicrafts and agriculture (viticulture, horticulture, mountain farmers) increased for the Jewish minority, and their share in the Crimean population, especially in the trading cities of the south coast, was significantly lower compared to the Middle Ages, possibly due to emigration or conversions from the Middle Ages. a. to Islam. But even after the Middle Ages, Jewish immigration is still passed down - oriental merchants, but mostly Eastern European Jews who were either captured by nomads and ransomed from the slave trade, or refugees from Eastern European pogroms, especially during the Khmelnyzkyi uprising , and later also economic emigrants before the impoverishment of Eastern Europe in the time of expanding serfdom . The Crimean Chakian customs ( minhag kaffa ) with influences from various neighboring groups were written down by the Kiev rabbi Moshe ha-Gole (1458–1520) and David Lechno (d. 1735), Rabbi Lechno also wrote a chronicle of the Crimean khans.

    Russian period

    After the annexation of the Crimea to Russia in 1792, an increasing distance between the Karaites and the Crimeanchaks was described. Karaean community leaders repeatedly convinced high officials to exempt them from anti-Jewish laws because they do not belong to normal Judaism. However, the Russian administration of the " New Russia ", Crimea and Caucasus regions to be settled also for rabbinical-Talmudic Jews suspended some otherwise valid regional restrictions, such as the ban on land ownership (lifted in 1861), which many Ashkenazim also used for rural settlement. Pogroms , some of which have been revived in Russia since the 1880s with the support and approval of regional authorities, did not take place in Crimea. The relatively poor Crimchak community was given some tax breaks and Governor Vorontsov left some benevolent descriptions of the Crimchaks.

    Krimchaks in their stronghold of Karasubasar with Rabbi Medini in the 19th century

    The community lived mainly from handicrafts, also agriculture, rarely trade. Polygamy , legal according to the oriental tradition , was abolished at the beginning of the 19th century, some other patriarchal traditions, such as the young marriages of girls and the prohibition of remarriage of widows, persisted until the end of the 19th century. In the Crimean community, the Jewish tradition of charity , good deeds and charity was of particularly central importance, which is why there were no beggars in the communities and their neighborhood who, like widows and orphans, were cared for by the communities. The Crimchaks left a rich folklore of legends, proverbs, songs and riddles that was collected in the 19th century. The most important rabbi of Russian times was Chaim Medini pictured above, actually from Jerusalem, who wrote several religious works and works on the Crimean chakian traditions.

    In the 20th century and the Holocaust

    Isaak Samuilowitsch Kaya (1953)

    The earliest Crimean schools, which predominantly taught modern, non-traditional subjects, mostly still in Russian, emerged relatively late, in the first years of the 20th century. Therefore, at the end of the First World War and the Russian Civil War , few, younger Crimchaks were still familiar with modern and scientific ideas. In the early years of the Soviet Union, the systematic emancipation policy of all ethnic minorities, the Korenisazija, was carried out, according to which as far as possible everyone should be literate in their mother tongue and taught in modern school subjects while fighting religious traditions. For this policy, most of the minority languages ​​were converted to the Latin script during the Latinization in the Soviet Union , mostly modifications of the "New Turkic Language Alphabet", which was also called Janalif . A variant of the Latin alphabet was also introduced for the Crimean language and several elementary schools, evening schools and middle schools with Crimean language of instruction, cultural associations and two craft cooperatives were established. The best-known personality of this stage was the Crimean linguist, historian, educator, ethnographer and writer Isaak Samuilowitsch Kaya (1887–1956) who worked in Odessa , who developed the Crimean version of Latin alphabet, wrote school books, teaching texts, histories and novels and collected folk tales.

    Memorial stone for the Jewish and Crimean Chak victims of the Simferopol massacre

    This development was almost completely stopped by the Holocaust , in which 70–80% of the Crimean chaks were murdered. According to a note by the war diary keeper Walter Bußmann , the SD "liquidated the Crimchaks, about 6,000 in number, by the beginning of December 1941". The most important massacres were the Simferopol massacre on December 11, 1941, the Feodosia massacre on December 5, 1941, from November 16 to December 15, 1941, 2504 Crimean chaks in Western Crimea were murdered. December about 2500 Jews from Kerch , on January 18, 1942 about 2000 Jewish residents of Karasubasar (Bilohirsk / Belogorsk), mostly Crimean chaks, were murdered in gas vans . In total, around 40,000 Jews fell victim to the Holocaust in the Crimea, of which around 6,000 were Crimean chaks. Cultural heritage, such as some unpublished manuscripts, was also destroyed during the Nazi occupation.

    Post-war and present

    After the Red Army recaptured the Crimea in 1944, a small part of the survivors ended up in the ethnic deportations of the Crimean Tatars and other minorities by the NKVD to Central Asia. When, in the last two years of Stalin's life, between 1951 and 1953, Israeli-Soviet relations deteriorated and some members of the Jewish minority were exposed to the “ cosmopolitan trials ” and the fight against the alleged “ doctors' conspiracy ”, the cultural, linguistic and educational support for Jewish ethnic groups was largely ended . In the post-war Soviet Union, Jewish languages ​​such as Yiddish and Crimchak were no longer promoted and a Russification policy was implemented alongside the pre-existing promotion of atheism. The Russian-Polish Judaicist Michail Kisilow estimates in 2007/2008 that only five to seven of the world's fewer than 2000 Crimean chaks were completely proficient in the Crimean Chak language.

    In the post-war period there were discussions among Crimchaks, Karaites and mountain Jews as to whether their own communities go back to converted natives or to Jewish immigrants. Both extreme positions contradict what is historically known. Immigrants and converts ( Gerim , always possible in Judaism) played a role, as in many diaspora groups. The discussion also had political dimensions: representatives of the "convert theory" wanted to protect their communities from persecution after the Holocaust, representatives of the "Jewish theory" identified themselves with religion or oppositionally with Israel.

    During the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Crimea, which had belonged to the Ukrainian SSR since 1954 , became the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (except the area around Sevastopol ) in 1991 as part of the Ukraine with extensive minority rights and minority support for Russians, Crimean Tatars, Crimean Menians, Crimean Greeks, Crimean Bulgarians, Crimchaks, Karaites and Jews re-established. During this time, Krimchaks, then about 1000 people on the peninsula, made efforts to revive the Crimeanchak traditions ( minhag kaffa ) after decades of atheistic education . The efforts remained incomplete, however, because part of the community was not religiously interested, but especially because four-fifths emigrated during the severe transformation crises of the 1990s, mostly to Israel , some to Brooklyn / New York. In Israel there are tendencies to adapt to the Israeli environment, in Brooklyn to the American or Yiddish-Ashkenazi neighborhood. The roughly 200 Crimeanchaks in Russia and central Ukraine each have few connections to the traditions. The future of the Crimean community with its traditions is therefore uncertain. After the annexation of Crimea by Russia in the Crimean crisis in 2014, Crimchaks report that they were able to live integrated under Russian rule without any problems, but some also report that minority rights and support for minorities were better and more systematically organized under Ukrainian administration until 2014.

    literature

    • Crimeanchaks. (Russian) from: Small Jewish Encyclopedia Jerusalem 1976–2005 (Russian edition, article from 1988).
    • Mikhail Kisilow: Krimchaken: Current state of the community. (Russian, at Webarchive) in: Eurasian Jewish Yearbook. 2007/08.

    Web links

    • Krymchaks. in: Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine. (English translation of the entry from the Encyclopedia of Ukraine from 1988).

    Individual evidence

    1. ↑ Heinz-Gerhard Zimpel: Lexicon of the world population . Nikol Verlag, Berlin 2003, ISBN 978-3-933203-84-7 , pp. 291 .
    2. ^ Crimchak entry in Ethnologue
    3. ↑ Mikhail Kisilow: Krimtschaken: Current state of the community. (Russian, at Webarchive) in: Eurasian Jewish Yearbook. 2007/08, second sentence.
    4. ↑ Mikhail Kisilow: Krimtschaken: Current state of the community. (Russian, at Webarchive) in: Eurasian Jewish Yearbook. 2007/08, cf. second paragraph, also for classification as ethnolect or language.
    5. ↑ Harald Haarmann: Tschagataisch. in: Lexicon of the Languages ​​of the European East.
    6. ↑ Mikhail Kisilow: Krimtschaken: Current state of the community. (Russian, at Webarchive) in: Eurasian Jewish Yearbook. 2007/08, cf. second paragraph.
    7. ↑ Crimchaks. (Russian) from: Small Jewish Encyclopedia Jerusalem 1976-2005 (Russian edition, article from 1988), penultimate paragraph of the second chapter.
    8. ↑ Crimchaks. (Russian) from: Small Jewish Encyclopedia Jerusalem 1976–2005 (Russian edition, article from 1988), first and second paragraph. The double names are examples of the Hebrew loanwords mentioned: çufutlar and srel balaları is Crimean Tatar , jehud , plural jehudim and bnei Israel is Hebrew, jehudiler , with the Turkish plural ending -ler (Tatar: -lar ), is a special Chagatan-Crimean word.
    9. ↑ Crimchaks. (Russian) from: Small Jewish Encyclopedia Jerusalem 1976–2005 (Russian edition, article from 1988) Chapter 3.2, third paragraph; Chapter 3.3, penultimate paragraph.
    10. ↑ Mikhail Kisilow: Krimtschaken: Current state of the community. (Russian, at Webarchive) in: Eurasian Jewish Yearbook. 2007/08, cf. first paragraph.
    11. ↑ Crimchaks. (Russian) from: Small Jewish Encyclopedia Jerusalem 1976-2005 (Russian edition, article from 1988), second chapter, fifth paragraph.
    12. ↑ Mikhail Kisilow: Krimtschaken: Current state of the community. (Russian, at Webarchive) in: Eurasian Jewish Yearbook. 2007/08, fourth paragraph.
    13. ↑ Mikhail Kisilow: Krimtschaken: Current state of the community. (Russian, at Webarchive) in: Eurasian Jewish Yearbook. 2007/08, fourth paragraph.
    14. ↑ Mikhail Kisilow: Krimtschaken: Current state of the community. (Russian, at Webarchive) in: Eurasian Jewish Yearbook. 2007/08, penultimate paragraph of the first chapter.
    15. ↑ Mikhail Kisilow: Krimtschaken: Current state of the community. (Russian, at Webarchive) in: Eurasian Jewish Yearbook. 2007/08, third paragraph of the second chapter.
    16. ↑ Results of the census in the Uzbek SSR by Demoskop Weekly
    17. ↑ Mikhail Kisilow: Krimtschaken: Current state of the community. (Russian, at Webarchive) in: Eurasian Jewish Yearbook. 2007/08, penultimate paragraph of the first chapter.
    18. ↑ Mikhail Kisilow: Krimtschaken: Current state of the community. (Russian, at Webarchive) in: Eurasian Jewish Yearbook. 2007/08, first paragraph of the second chapter.
    19. ↑ Mikhail Kisilow: Krimtschaken: Current state of the community. (Russian, at Webarchive) in: Eurasian Jewish Yearbook. 2007/08, second chapter.
    20. ^ Rudolf Mark: The peoples of the former Soviet Union: The nationalities of the CIS, Georgia and the Baltic States A lexicon . Springer-Verlag, 2013, ISBN 978-3-322-94173-2 ( google.de [accessed on May 20, 2019]).
    21. ↑ Mikhail Kisilow: Krimtschaken: Current state of the community. (Russian, at Webarchive) in: Eurasian Jewish Yearbook. 2007/08, first paragraph.
    22. ^ Article “Georgian Jews” in the Small Jewish Encyclopedia (Russian), 12th paragraph.
    23. ↑ Crimchaks. (Russian) from: Small Jewish Encyclopedia Jerusalem 1976–2005 (Russian edition, article from 1988) Chapter 3.1.
    24. ↑ Crimchaks. (Russian) from: Small Jewish Encyclopedia Jerusalem 1976–2005 (Russian edition, article from 1988) Chapter 3.2.
    25. ↑ Crimchaks. (Russian) from: Small Jewish Encyclopedia Jerusalem 1976–2005 (Russian edition, article from 1988) Chapter 3.3.
    26. ↑ Crimchaks. (Russian) from: Small Jewish Encyclopedia Jerusalem 1976–2005 (Russian edition, article from 1988) Chapter 3.4.
    27. ↑ Walter Bußmann: "Notes" from the War Administration Department at the Quartermaster General (1941/42). In: Klaus Hildebrand, Reiner Pommerin (Hrsg.): German question and European balance. Festschrift for Andreas Hillgruber for his 60th birthday. Böhlau, Cologne 1985, ISBN 3-412-07984-7 , p. 240.
    28. ↑ Crimchaks. (Russian) from: Small Jewish Encyclopedia Jerusalem 1976-2005 (Russian edition, article from 1988) last chapter.
    29. ↑ Mikhail Kisilow: Krimtschaken: Current state of the community. (Russian, at Webarchive) in: Eurasian Jewish Yearbook. 2007/08, second chapter, fourth paragraph.
    30. ↑ Mikhail Kisilow: Krimtschaken: Current state of the community. (Russian, at Webarchive) in: Eurasian Jewish Yearbook. 2007/08, second chapter, seventh paragraph.
    31. ↑ Mikhail Kisilow: Krimtschaken: Current state of the community. (Russian, at Webarchive) in: Eurasian Jewish Yearbook. 2007/08, third chapter.
    32. ↑ Mikhail Kisilow: Krimtschaken: Current state of the community. (Russian, at Webarchive) in: Eurasian Jewish Yearbook. 2007/08.
    33. ↑ Ulrich Schmid : Krimtschaken, Juden und Karaeans. from: Neue Zürcher Zeitung from February 7, 2020